medigraphic.com
ISSN 2683-1678 (Print)
Órgano Oficial de la Sociedad
Latinoamericana de lnfectología Pediátrica.
Órgano de la Asociación Mexicana de
Infectología Pediátrica, A.C.
Órgano difusor de la Sociedad Española
de lnfectología

2024, Number 1

<< Back Next >>

Rev Latin Infect Pediatr 2024; 37 (1)

Pediatric group A Streptococcal disease. Narrative review of the current status

Baeza CC, Martínez CL

Language: Spanish
References: 130
Page: 8-25
PDF size: 378.68 Kb.


ABSTRACT

After the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, we have witnessed an alarm indicating the increase in invasive group A streptococcus disease and SEIP launched a research network (PedGAS-net) to study these infections. On the other hand, given the significant burden of disease caused by GHG, there are initiatives promoted by the WHO for the study and research of vaccines applicable to all populations. Finally, in 2020, a strain with decreased susceptibility to penicillin was described, which would mean the emergence of a new resistance mechanism with important implications. The purpose of this review is to update knowledge of GAS disease.


REFERENCES

  1. Carapetis JR, Steer AC, Mulholland EK, Weber M. The global burden of group A streptococcal diseases. Lancet Infect Dis. 2005; 5: 685-94.

  2. Ajay Castro S, Dorfmueller HC. Update on the development of Group A Streptococcus vaccines | npj Vaccines. Npj Vaccines. 2023; 8: 135.

  3. Watkins DA, Johnson CO, Colquhoun SM, Karthikeyan G, Beaton A, Bukhman G, et al. Global, Regional, and National Burden of Rheumatic Heart Disease, 1990-2015. N Engl J Med. 2017; 377: 713-22.

  4. Filleron A, Jeziorski E, Michon AL, Rodière M, Marchandin H. Current insights in invasive group A streptococcal infections in pediatrics. Eur J Pediatr. 2012; 171: 1589-1598.

  5. Sánchez-Encinales V, Ludwig G, Tamayo E, García-Arenzana JM, Muñoz-Almagro C, Montes M. Molecular characterization of Streptococcus pyogenes causing invasive disease in pediatric population in Spain a 12-year study: Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2019; 38: 1168-1172.

  6. Suárez-Arrabal MC, Sánchez Cámara LA, Navarro Gómez ML, Santos-Sebastián M del M, Hernández-Sampelayo T, Cercenado Mansilla E et al. Enfermedad invasiva por Streptococcus pyogenes: cambios en la incidencia y factores pronósticos. An Pediatría. 2019; 91: 286-295.

  7. Vomero A, García G, Pandolfo S, Zunino C, Ambrosoni M, Algorta G et al. [Invasive Streptococcus pyogenes diseases 2005-2013: Pediatric Hospital Pereira Rossell Uruguay]. Rev Chil Infectologia Organo Of Soc Chil Infectologia. 2014; 31: 729-734.

  8. Minodier Ph, Laporte R, Miramont S. Épidémiologie des infections à streptocoque du groupe A dans les pays en développement. Arch Pédiatrie. 2014; 21: S69-72.

  9. Villalón P, Sáez-Nieto JA, Rubio-López V, Medina-Pascual MJ, Garrido N, Carrasco G et al. Invasive Streptococcus pyogenes disease in Spain: a microbiological and epidemiological study covering the period 2007-2019. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis Off Publ Eur Soc Clin Microbiol. 2021; 40: 2295-2303.

  10. Cobo-Vázquez E, Aguilera-Alonso D, Carbayo T, Figueroa-Ospina L, Sanz-Santaeufemia FJ, Baquero-Artigao F et al. Epidemiology and clinical features of Streptococcus Pyogenes bloodstream infections in children in Spain. In Review; 2023. Disponible en: https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-2530555/v1

  11. González-Abad MJ, Alonso Sanz M. [Invasive Streptococcus pyogenes infections (2011-2018): EMM-type and clinical presentation]. An Pediatr. 2020; 92: 351-358.

  12. Walker MJ, Barnett TC, McArthur JD, Cole JN, Gillen CM, Henningham A et al. Disease manifestations and pathogenic mechanisms of Group A Streptococcus. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2014; 27: 264-301.

  13. Mariani F, Gentili C, Pulcinelli V, Martino L, Valentini P, Buonsenso D. State of the art of invasive Group A Streptococcus infection in children: A scoping review of the literature with a focus on predictors of invasive infection. Child Basel Switz. 2023; 10: 1472.

  14. Kanwal S, Vaitla P. Streptococcus pyogenes. En: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024. Disponible en: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554528/

  15. Increased incidence of scarlet fever and invasive Group A Streptococcus infection - multi-country [Internet]. Disponible en: https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news/item/2022-DON429

  16. Guy R, Henderson KL, Coelho J, Hughes H, Mason EL, Gerver SM et al. Increase in invasive group A streptococcal infection notifications, England, 2022. Euro Surveill Bull Eur Sur Mal Transm Eur Commun Dis Bull. 2023; 28: 2200942.

  17. Increase in Invasive Group A streptococcal infections among children in Europe, including fatalities. 2022. Disponible en: https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/news-events/increase-invasive-group-streptococcal-infections-among-children-europe-including

  18. Sinnathamby MA, Warburton F, Guy R, Andrews N, Lamagni T, Watson C et al. Epidemiological Impact of the Pediatric Live Attenuated Influenza Vaccine (LAIV) Program on Group A Streptococcus (GAS) Infection in England. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2023; 10: ofad270.

  19. Orieux A, Prevel R, Dumery M, Lascarrou JB, Zucman N, Reizine F et al. Invasive group A streptococcal infections requiring admission to ICU: a nationwide, multicenter, retrospective study (ISTRE study). Crit Care Lond Engl. 2024; 28: 4.

  20. Lacey JA, Bennett J, James TB, Hines BS, Chen T, Lee D et al. A worldwide population of Streptococcus pyogenes strains circulating among school-aged children in Auckland, New Zealand: a genomic epidemiology analysis. Lancet Reg Health - West Pac. 2024; 42. Disponible en: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanwpc/article/PIIS2666-6065(23)00282-1/fulltext

  21. Golden A, Griffith A, Demczuk W, Tyrrell G, Kus J, McGeer A et al. Invasive group A streptococcal disease surveillance in Canada, 2020. Can Commun Dis Rep. 48: 407-414.

  22. Cobo-Vázquez E, Aguilera-Alonso D, Carrasco-Colom J, Calvo C, Saavedra-Lozano J, PedGAS-net Working Group. Increasing incidence and severity of invasive Group A streptococcal disease in Spanish children in 2019-2022. Lancet Reg Health Eur. 2023; 27: 100597.

  23. Cohen PR, Rybak A, Werner A, Béchet S, Desandes R, Hassid F et al. Trends in pediatric ambulatory community acquired infections before and during COVID-19 pandemic: A prospective multicentric surveillance study in France. Lancet Reg Health - Eur. 2022; 22: 100497.

  24. Ramos Amador JT, Berzosa Sánchez A, Illán Ramos M. Group A Streptococcus invasive infection in children: Epidemiologic changes and implications. Rev Espanola Quimioter Publicacion Of Soc Espanola Quimioter. 2023; 36 Suppl 1: 33-36.

  25. Herrera AL, Potts R, Huber VC, Chaussee MS. Influenza enhances host susceptibility to non-pulmonary invasive Streptococcus pyogenes infections. Virulence. 2023; 14: 2265063.

  26. de Ceano-Vivas M, Molina Gutiérrez MÁ, Mellado-Sola I, García Sánchez P, Grandioso D, Calvo C et al. Streptococcus pyogenes infections in Spanish children before and after the COVID pandemic. Coming back to the previous incidence. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin (Engl Ed). 2024; 42 (2): 88-92.

  27. Lynskey NN, Jauneikaite E, Li HK, Zhi X, Turner CE, Mosavie M et al. Emergence of dominant toxigenic M1T1 Streptococcus pyogenes clone during increased scarlet fever activity in England: a population-based molecular epidemiological study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019; 19: 1209-1218.

  28. Rodriguez-Ruiz JP, Lin Q, Lammens C, Smeesters PR, van Kleef-van Koeveringe S, Matheeussen V et al. Increase in bloodstream infections caused by emm1 group A Streptococcus correlates with emergence of toxigenic M1UK, Belgium, May 2022 to August 2023. Euro Surveill Bull Eur Sur Mal Transm Eur Commun Dis Bull. 2023; 28: 2300422.

  29. Angurana SK, Awasthi P, K.C. S, Nallasamy K, Bansal A, Jayashree M. Clinical profile, intensive care needs, and short-term outcome of Toxic Shock Syndrome among children: A 10-year single-centre experience from north India. Indian J Pediatr. 2023; 90: 334-340.

  30. Zangarini L, Martiny D, Miendje Deyi VY, Hites M, Maillart E, Hainaut M et al. Incidence and clinical and microbiological features of invasive and probable invasive streptococcal group A infections in children and adults in the Brussels-Capital Region, 2005-2020. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis Off Publ Eur Soc Clin Microbiol. 2023; 42: 555-567.

  31. Spellerberg B, Brandt C. Laboratory diagnosis of Streptococcus pyogenes (group A streptococci). En: Ferretti JJ, Stevens DL, Fischetti VA, editores. Streptococcus pyogenes: Basic biology to clinical manifestations. 2nd ed. Oklahoma City (OK): University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center; 2022. Disponible en: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK587110/

  32. Frost HR, Guglielmini J, Duchene S, Lacey JA, Sanderson-Smith M, Steer AC et al. Promiscuous evolution of Group A streptococcal M and M-like proteins. Microbiology. 2023; 169: 001280.

  33. McMillan DJ, Drèze PA, Vu T, Bessen DE, Guglielmini J, Steer AC et al. Updated model of group A Streptococcus M proteins based on a comprehensive worldwide study. Clin Microbiol Infect Off Publ Eur Soc Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013; 19: E222-229.

  34. Cunningham MW. Pathogenesis of group A streptococcal infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2000; 13: 470-511.

  35. Wilde S, Johnson AF, LaRock CN. Playing with Fire: Proinflammatory virulence mechanisms of Group A Streptococcus. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2021; 11. Disponible en: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcimb.2021.704099

  36. Wang J, Ma C, Li M, Gao X, Wu H, Dong W et al. Streptococcus pyogenes: Pathogenesis and the current status of vaccines. Vaccines. 2023; 11: 1510.

  37. Brouwer S, Rivera-Hernandez T, Curren BF, Harbison-Price N, De Oliveira DMP, Jespersen MG et al. Pathogenesis, epidemiology and control of Group A Streptococcus infection | Nature Reviews Microbiology. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2023; 21: 431-447.

  38. Happonen L, Collin M. Immunomodulating enzymes from Streptococcus pyogenes-in pathogenesis, as biotechnological tools, and as biological drugs. Microorganisms. 2024; 12: 200.

  39. Tamayo E, Montes M, García-Medina G, García-Arenzana JM, Pérez-Trallero E. Spread of a highly mucoid Streptococcus pyogenes emm3/ST15 clone. BMC Infect Dis. 2010; 10: 233.

  40. Hurst JR, Shannon BA, Craig HC, Rishi A, Tuffs SW, McCormick JK. The Streptococcus pyogenes hyaluronic acid capsule promotes experimental nasal and skin infection by preventing neutrophil-mediated clearance. PLoS Pathog. 2022; 18: e1011013.

  41. Wessels MR. Capsular Polysaccharide of Group A Streptococcus. Microbiol Spectr. 2019; 7.

  42. Wierzbicki IH, Campeau A, Dehaini D, Holay M, Wei X, Greene T et al. Group A streptococcal s protein utilizes red blood cells as immune camouflage and is a critical determinant for immune evasion. Cell Rep. 2019; 29: 2979-2989.e15.

  43. Shannon BA, McCormick JK, Schlievert PM. Toxins and superantigens of group A streptococci. Microbiol Spectr. 2019; 7 (1). doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.GPP3-0054-2018. PMID: 30737912.

  44. Troese MJ, Burlet E, Cunningham MW, Alvarez K, Bentley R, Thomas N et al. Group A Streptococcus vaccine targeting the erythrogenic toxins SpeA and SpeB is safe and immunogenic in rabbits and does not induce antibodies associated with autoimmunity. Vaccines. 2023; 11: 1504.

  45. Brouwer S, Barnett TC, Ly D, Kasper KJ, De Oliveira DMP, Rivera-Hernandez T et al. Prophage exotoxins enhance colonization fitness in epidemic scarlet fever-causing Streptococcus pyogenes. Nat Commun. 2020; 11: 1-11.

  46. Nelson DC, Garbe J, Collin M. Cysteine proteinase SpeB from Streptococcus pyogenes - a potent modifier of immunologically important host and bacterial proteins. Biol Chem. 2011; 392: 1077-1088.

  47. Trastoy B, Du JJ, Cifuente JO, Rudolph L, García-Alija M, Klontz EH et al. Mechanism of antibody-specific deglycosylation and immune evasion by streptococcal IgG-specific endoglycosidases. Nat Commun. 2023; 14: 1705.

  48. Naegeli A, Bratanis E, Karlsson C, Shannon O, Kalluru R, Linder A et al. Streptococcus pyogenes evades adaptive immunity through specific IgG glycan hydrolysis. J Exp Med. 2019; 216: 1615-1629.

  49. Toledo AG, Bratanis E, Velásquez E, Chowdhury S, Olofsson B, Sorrentino JT et al. Pathogen-driven degradation of endogenous and therapeutic antibodies during streptococcal infections. Nat Commun. 2023; 14: 6693.

  50. Hurst JR, Brouwer S, Walker MJ, McCormick JK. Streptococcal superantigens and the return of scarlet fever. PLoS Pathog. 2021; 17: e1010097.

  51. Sriskandan S, Faulkner L, Hopkins P. Streptococcus pyogenes: Insight into the function of the streptococcal superantigens. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2007; 39: 12-19.

  52. Gatermann S, Das S, Dubreuil L, Giske CG, Kahlmeter G, Lina G et al. Expected phenotypes and expert rules are important complements to antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2022; 28: 764-767.

  53. Vannice KS, Ricaldi J, Nanduri S, Fang FC, Lynch JB, Bryson-Cahn C et al. Streptococcus pyogenes PBP2X Mutation Confers Reduced Susceptibility to β-lactam Antibiotics. Clin Infect Dis Off Publ Infect Dis Soc Am. 2020; 71: 201-204.

  54. Hayes A, Lacey JA, Morris JM, Davies MR, Tong SYC. Restricted sequence variation in Streptococcus pyogenes penicillin binding proteins. mSphere. 2020; 5: e00090-20.

  55. Chochua S, Metcalf B, Li Z, Mathis S, Tran T, Rivers J et al. Invasive Group A streptococcal penicillin binding protein 2× variants associated with reduced susceptibility to β-Lactam antibiotics in the United States, 2015-2021. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2022; 66: e0080222.

  56. Musser JM, Beres SB, Zhu L, Olsen RJ, Vuopio J, Hyyrylainen HL et al. Reduced in vitro susceptibility of Streptococcus pyogenes to β-lactam antibiotics associated with mutations in the PBP2X gene is geographically widespread. J Clin Microbiol. 2020; 58: e01993-19.

  57. Yu D, Guo D, Zheng Y, Yang Y. A review of penicillin binding protein and group A Streptococcus with reduced-β-lactam susceptibility. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2023; 13: 1117160.

  58. Hanage WP, Shelburne SA III. Streptococcus pyogenes with reduced susceptibility to β-lactams: How big an alarm bell? Clin Infect Dis. 2020; 71: 205-206.

  59. Villalón P, Bárcena M, Medina-Pascual MJ, Garrido N, Pino-Rosa S, Carrasco G et al. National surveillance of tetracycline, erythromycin, and clindamycin resistance in invasive Streptococcus pyogenes: A retrospective study of the situation in Spain, 2007-2020. Antibiot Basel Switz. 2023; 12: 99.

  60. Berbel D, González-Díaz A, López de Egea G, Càmara J, Ardanuy C. An overview of macrolide resistance in streptococci: Prevalence, mobile elements and dynamics. Microorganisms. 2022; 10: 2316.

  61. Rafei R, Al Iaali R, Osman M, Dabboussi F, Hamze M. A global snapshot on the prevalent macrolide-resistant emm types of Group A Streptococcus worldwide, their phenotypes and their resistance marker genotypes during the last two decades: A systematic review. Infect Genet Evol J Mol Epidemiol Evol Genet Infect Dis. 2022; 99: 105258.

  62. Montes M, Tamayo E, Orden B, Larruskain J, Perez-Trallero E. Prevalence and clonal characterization of Streptococcus pyogenes clinical isolates with reduced fluoroquinolone susceptibility in Spain. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010; 54: 93-97.

  63. Parajulee P, Lee JS, Abbas K, Cannon J, Excler JL, Kim JH et al. State transitions across the Strep A disease spectrum: scoping review and evidence gaps. BMC Infect Dis. 2024; 24: 108.

  64. Steer AC, Danchin MH, Carapetis JR. Group A streptococcal infections in children. J Paediatr Child Health. 2007; 43: 203-213.

  65. Cannon JW, Jack S, Wu Y, Zhang J, Baker MG, Geelhoed E et al. An economic case for a vaccine to prevent group A Streptococcus skin infections. Vaccine. 2018; 36: 6968-6978.

  66. Espadas Maciá D, Flor Macián EM, Borrás R, Poujois Gisbert S, Muñoz Bonet JI. Streptococcus pyogenes infection in paediatrics: from pharyngotonsillitis to invasive infections. An Pediatr. 2018; 88: 75-81.

  67. Cannon JW, Wyber R. Modalities of group A streptococcal prevention and treatment and their economic justification. NPJ Vaccines. 2023; 8: 59.

  68. Stevens DL, Bryant AE. Streptococcus pyogenes impetigo, erysipelas, and cellulitis. 2022. In: Ferretti JJ, Stevens DL, Fischetti VA, editors. Streptococcus pyogenes: Basic biology to clinical manifestations. 2nd ed. Oklahoma City (OK): University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center; 2022. Chapter 23.

  69. Johnson AF, LaRock CN. Antibiotic treatment, mechanisms for failure, and adjunctive therapies for infections by Group A Streptococcus. Front Microbiol. 2021; 12: 760255.

  70. Stevens DL, Bryant AE. Severe group A streptococcal infections. En: Ferretti JJ, Stevens DL, Fischetti VA, editores. Streptococcus pyogenes: Basic biology to clinical manifestations. Oklahoma City (OK): University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center; 2016. Disponible en: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK333425/

  71. Babiker A, Kadri SS. ICU management of invasive β-hemolytic streptococcal infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2022; 36: 861-887.

  72. Laho D, Blumental S, Botteaux A, Smeesters PR. Invasive group A streptococcal infections: Benefit of clindamycin, intravenous immunoglobulins and secondary prophylaxis. Front Pediatr. 2021; 9: 697938.

  73. Avire NJ, Whiley H, Ross K. A review of Streptococcus pyogenes: Public Health risk factors, prevention and control. Pathogens. 2021; 10: 248.

  74. Rodríguez-Nuñez A, Dosil-Gallardo S, Jordan I, ad hoc Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome collaborative group of Spanish Society of Pediatric Intensive Care. Clinical characteristics of children with group A streptococcal toxic shock syndrome admitted to pediatric intensive care units. Eur J Pediatr. 2011; 170: 639-644.

  75. Martínez Campos L. Escarlatina. "La segunda enfermedad". En: Algunos aspectos de infectología pediátrica en el pasado. Cuadernos de Historia de la Pediatría Española núm. 12. Madrid: AEP 2016, 31-39. 2016. Disponible en: https://www.aeped.es/comite-historia/documentos/cuadernos-historia-pediatria-espanola-n-12-algunos-aspectos-infectologia-pediatrica

  76. Herdman MT, Cordery R, Karo B, Purba AK, Begum L, Lamagni T et al. Clinical management and impact of scarlet fever in the modern era: findings from a cross-sectional study of cases in London, 2018-2019. BMJ Open. 2021; 11: e057772.

  77. Breiman RF, Davis JP, Facklam RR, Gray BM, Hoge CW, Kaplan EL et al. Defining the group A Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome: Rationale and consensus definition. JAMA. 1993; 269: 390-391.

  78. Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome (STSS) (Streptococcus pyogenes) 2010 Case Definition | CDC. 2021. Disponible en: https://ndc.services.cdc.gov/case-definitions/streptococcal-toxic-shock-syndrome-2010/

  79. Bartoszko JJ, Elias Z, Rudziak P, Lo CKL, Thabane L, Mertz D et al. Prognostic factors for Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2022; 12: e063023.

  80. Garancini N, Ricci G, Ghezzi M, Tommasi P, Zunica F, Mandelli A et al. Invasive group A streptococcal infections: are we facing a new outbreak? A case series with the experience of a single tertiary center. Ital J Pediatr. 2023; 49: 88.

  81. Guilherme L, Steer AC, Cunningham M. Chapter 2 - Pathogenesis of acute rheumatic fever. En: Dougherty S, Carapetis J, Zühlke L, Wilson N, editores. Acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease. San Diego (CA): Elsevier; 2021. p. 19-30. Disponible en: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323639828000027

  82. Cunningham MW. Streptococcus and rheumatic fever. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2012; 24: 408-416.

  83. Guilherme L, de Barros SF, Kohler KF, Santos SR, Ferreira FM, Silva WR et al. Rheumatic heart disease: Pathogenesis and vaccine. Curr Protein Pept Sci. 2018; 19: 900-908.

  84. Guidelines for the diagnosis of rheumatic fever. Jones Criteria, 1992 update. Special Writing Group of the Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young of the American Heart Association. JAMA. 1992; 268: 2069-2073.

  85. Gewitz MH, Baltimore RS, Tani LY, Sable CA, Shulman ST, Carapetis J et al. Revision of the Jones Criteria for the diagnosis of acute rheumatic fever in the era of Doppler echocardiography: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2015; 131: 1806-1818.

  86. Dooley LM, Ahmad TB, Pandey M, Good MF, Kotiw M. Rheumatic heart disease: A review of the current status of global research activity. Autoimmun Rev. 2021; 20: 102740.

  87. Seckeler MD, Hoke TR. The worldwide epidemiology of acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease. Clin Epidemiol. 2011; 3: 67-84.

  88. Maness DL, Martin M, Mitchell G. Poststreptococcal illness: Recognition and management. Am Fam Physician. 2018; 97: 517-522.

  89. Chun C, Kingsbury DJ. Poststreptococcal reactive arthritis: Diagnostic challenges. Perm J. 2019; 23: 18.304.

  90. Shulman ST, Ayoub EM. Poststreptococcal reactive arthritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2002; 14: 562-565.

  91. Ahmed S, Padhan P, Misra R, Danda D. Update on post-streptococcal reactive arthritis: Narrative review of a forgotten disease. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2021; 23: 19.

  92. Bawazir Y, Towheed T, Anastassiades T. Post-streptococcal reactive arthritis. Curr Rheumatol Rev. 2020; 16: 2-8.

  93. Uziel Y, Perl L, Barash J, Hashkes PJ. Post-streptococcal reactive arthritis in children: a distinct entity from acute rheumatic fever. Pediatr Rheumatol. 2011; 9: 32.

  94. Barash J. Rheumatic fever and post-group a streptococcal arthritis in children. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2013; 15: 263-268.

  95. Casuscelli C, Longhitano E, Maressa V, Di Carlo S, Peritore L, Di Lorenzo S et al. Autoimmunity and infection in glomerular disease. Microorganisms. 2023; 11: 2227.

  96. Rodriguez-Iturbe B, Haas M. Post-Streptococcus pyogenes glomerulonephritis. En: Ferretti JJ, Stevens DL, Fischetti VA, editores. Streptococcus pyogenes: Basic biology to clinical manifestations. 2nd ed. Oklahoma City (OK): University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center; 2022. Disponible en: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK587117/

  97. Swedo SE, Leonard HL, Garvey M, Mittleman B, Allen AJ, Perlmutter S et al. Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections: Clinical description of the first 50 cases. Am J Psychiatry. 1998; 155: 264-271.

  98. Chain JL, Alvarez K, Mascaro-Blanco A, Reim S, Bentley R, Hommer R et al. Autoantibody biomarkers for basal ganglia encephalitis in Sydenham chorea and pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorder associated with streptococcal infections. Front Psychiatry. 2020; 11: 564.

  99. La Bella S, Attanasi M, Di Ludovico A, Scorrano G, Mainieri F, Ciarelli F et al. Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal infections (PANDAS) syndrome: A 10-year retrospective cohort study in an Italian Centre of Pediatric Rheumatology. Microorganisms. 2023; 12: 8.

  100. Prato A, Gulisano M, Scerbo M, Barone R, Vicario CM, Rizzo R. Diagnostic approach to Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcal infections (PANDAS): A narrative review of literature data. Front Pediatr. 2021; 9: 746639.

  101. Amrud K, Slinger R, Sant N, Ramotar K, Desjardins M. A comparison of the Quidel Solana GAS assay, the Luminex Aries Group A Strep assay and the Focus Diagnostics Simplexa Group A Strep Direct assay for detection of Group A Streptococcus in throat swab specimens. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2019; 95: 114866.

  102. Tanz RR, Zheng XT, Carter DM, Steele MC, Shulman ST. Caution needed: Molecular diagnosis of pediatric group A streptococcal pharyngitis. J Pediatr Infect Dis Soc. 2018; 7: e145-147.

  103. Thompson TZ, McMullen AR. Group A Streptococcus testing in pediatrics: the move to point-of-care molecular testing. J Clin Microbiol. 2020; 58: e01494-19.

  104. Iseri Nepesov M, Kilic O, Sali E, Yesil E, Akar A, Kaman A et al. Pathogens in Pediatric Septic Arthritis: A Multi-Center Study in Turkiye (PEDSART Study). Child Basel Switz. 2024; 11: 134.

  105. Streptococcus Laboratory: M Protein Gene (emm) Typing | CDC. 2021. Disponible en: https://www.cdc.gov/streplab/groupa-strep/emm-background.html

  106. Society CP. Group A streptococcal (GAS) pharyngitis: A practical guide to diagnosis and treatment | Canadian Paediatric Society. Disponible en: https://cps.ca/en/documents/position/group-a-streptococcal

  107. Miller KM, Barnett TC, Cadarette D, Bloom DE, Carapetis JR, Cannon JW. Antibiotic consumption for sore throat and the potential effect of a vaccine against group A Streptococcus: a systematic review and modelling study. eBioMedicine. 2023; 98. Disponible en: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/ebiom/article/PIIS2352-3964(23)00430-9/fulltext

  108. Pellegrino R, Timitilli E, Verga MC, Guarino A, Iacono ID, Scotese I et al. Acute pharyngitis in children and adults: descriptive comparison of current recommendations from national and international guidelines and future perspectives. Eur J Pediatr. 2023; 182: 5259-5273.

  109. Piñeiro Pérez R, Álvez González F, Baquero-Artigao F, Cruz Cañete M, de la Flor i Bru J, Fernández Landaluce A et al. Actualización del documento de consenso sobre el diagnóstico y tratamiento de la faringoamigdalitis aguda. An Pediatría. 2020; 93: 206.e1-206.e8.

  110. Baquero-Artigao F, Michavila A, Suárez-Rodriguez Á, Hernandez A, Martínez-Campos L, Calvo C. Documento de consenso de la Sociedad Española de Infectología Pediátrica, Sociedad Española de Inmunología Clínica y Alergia Pediátricas, Asociación Española de Pediatría de Atención Primaria y Sociedad Española de Pediatría Extrahospitalaria y Atención Primaria sobre antibioterapia en alergia a penicilina o amoxicilina. An Pediatría. 2017; 86: 99.e1-99.e9.

  111. Conejo-Fernández AJ, Martínez-Chamorro MJ, Couceiro JA, Moraga-Llop FA, Baquero-Artigao F, Alvez F et al. Documento de consenso SEIP-AEPAP-SEPEAP sobre la etiología, el diagnóstico y el tratamiento de las infecciones cutáneas bacterianas de manejo ambulatorio. An Pediatría. 2016; 84: 121.e1-121.e10.

  112. Wilkins AL, Steer AC, Smeesters PR, Curtis N. Toxic shock syndrome - the seven Rs of management and treatment. J Infect. 2017; 74 Suppl 1: S147-152.

  113. Moore DL, Allen UD, Mailman T. Invasive group A streptococcal disease: Management and chemoprophylaxis. Paediatr Child Health. 2019; 24: 128-129.

  114. Heil EL, Kaur H, Atalla A, Basappa S, Mathew M, Seung H et al. Comparison of adjuvant clindamycin vs linezolid for severe invasive group A Streptococcus skin and soft tissue infections. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2023; 10: ofad588.

  115. Babiker A, Li X, Lai YL, Strich JR, Warner S, Sarzynski S et al. Effectiveness of adjunctive clindamycin in β-lactam antibiotic-treated patients with invasive β-haemolytic streptococcal infections in US hospitals: a retrospective multicentre cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2021; 21: 697-710.

  116. Zhang H, Dong J, Huang J, Zhang K, Lu X, Zhao X et al. Evaluating antibiotic regimens for streptococcal toxic shock syndrome in children. PloS One. 2023; 18: e0292311.

  117. Carapetis JR, Jacoby P, Carville K, Ang SJJ, Curtis N, Andrews R. Effectiveness of clindamycin and intravenous immunoglobulin, and risk of disease in contacts, in invasive group A streptococcal infections. Clin Infect Dis Off Publ Infect Dis Soc Am. 2014; 59: 358-365.

  118. Walkinshaw DR, Wright MEE, Williams M, Scarapicchia TMF, Excler JL, Wiley RE et al. A Strep A vaccine global demand and return on investment forecast to inform industry research and development prioritization. NPJ Vaccines. 2023; 8: 113.

  119. Massell BF, Honikman LH, Amezcua J. Rheumatic fever following streptococcal vaccination. Report of three cases. JAMA. 1969; 207: 1115-1119.

  120. Dale JB, Walker MJ. Update on group A streptococcal vaccine development. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2020; 33: 244-250.

  121. Food and Drug Administration, HHS. Revocation of status of specific products; Group A streptococcus. Direct final rule. Fed Regist. 2005; 70: 72197-72199.

  122. Bisno AL, Rubin FA, Cleary PP, Dale JB. Prospects for a group A streptococcal vaccine: Rationale, feasibility, and obstacles-report of a national institute of allergy and infectious diseases workshop. Clin Infect Dis. 2005; 41: 1150-1156.

  123. Vekemans J, Gouvea-Reis F, Kim JH, Excler JL, Smeesters PR, O'Brien KL et al. The Path to group A Streptococcus vaccines: World Health Organization research and development technology roadmap and preferred product characteristics. Clin Infect Dis. 2019; 69: 877-883.

  124. Osowicki J, Vekemans J, Kaslow DC, Friede MH, Kim JH, Steer AC. WHO/IVI global stakeholder consultation on group A Streptococcus vaccine development: Report from a meeting held on 12-13 December 2016. Vaccine. 2018; 36: 3397-3405.

  125. Frost H, Excler JL, Sriskandan S, Fulurija A. Correlates of immunity to group A Streptococcus: a pathway to vaccine development | npj Vaccines. Npj Vaccines. 2023; 8: 1.

  126. Osowicki J, Azzopardi KI, Fabri L, Frost HR, Rivera-Hernandez T, Neeland MR et al. A controlled human infection model of Streptococcus pyogenes pharyngitis (CHIVAS-M75): an observational, dose-finding study. Lancet Microbe. 2021; 2: e291-299.

  127. Fulurija A, Cunningham MW, Korotkova N, Masterson MY, Bansal GP, Baker MG et al. Research opportunities for the primordial prevention of rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease-streptococcal vaccine development: a national heart, lung and blood institute workshop report. BMJ Glob Health. 2023; 8: e013534.

  128. Asturias EJ, Excler JL, Ackland J, Cavaleri M, Fulurija A, Long R et al. Safety of Streptococcus pyogenes vaccines: Anticipating and overcoming challenges for clinical trials and post-marketing monitoring. Clin Infect Dis Off Publ Infect Dis Soc Am. 2023; 77: 917-924.

  129. Walkinshaw DR, Wright MEE, Mullin AE, Excler JL, Kim JH, Steer AC. The Streptococcus pyogenes vaccine landscape | npj Vaccines. Npj Vaccines. 2023; 8: 16.

  130. Dale JB, Aranha MP, Penfound TA, Salehi S, Smith JC. Structure-guided design of a broadly cross-reactive multivalent group a streptococcal vaccine. Vaccine. 2023; 41: 5841-5847.




2020     |     www.medigraphic.com