medigraphic.com
ISSN 0016-3813 (Print)

2009, Number 5

<< Back Next >>

Gac Med Mex 2009; 145 (5)

II. Epidemiología del síndrome metabólico

Wacher-Rodarte N

Language: Spanish
References: 128
Page: 384-391
PDF size: 79.81 Kb.


ABSTRACT

Metabolic syndrome was originally described in 1988 as syndrome X to show the clustering of cardiovascular risk factors: obesity, hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia and hypertension. The pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome is strongly linked to changes in metabolism associated with obesity. Numerous diagnostic criteria confuse and hamper the clinical study of the epidemiology of this syndrome. The risk factors for the metabolic syndrome are those of obesity: poor nutrition and little physical activity, both related to social and economic change. It has been reported that the prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Mexico is 13 % to 56 % depending on the population studied and diagnostic criteria used. In children and adolescents it has been reported in 20 %. Recently, many authors have questioned the relevance of the metabolic syndrome, among other things because the pathogenesis has not been clearly elucidated, and also because there is no single drug treatment for all its components. However, the concept of the metabolic syndrome helps the clinician to search for other components when one of them is abnormal and to implement preventive or therapeutic measures for obesity.


REFERENCES

  1. Reaven GM. Banting lecture 1988. Role of insulin resistance in human disease. Diabetes 1988;37:1595-1607.

  2. Alberti K, Zimmet P, Shaw J. Metabolic syndrome. A new world-wide definition. A Consensus Statement from the International Diabetes Federation. Diabet Med 2006;23:469-480.

  3. Wilson P, Kannel W, Silbershatz H, D’Agostino R. Clustering of metabolic factors and heart disease. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:1104-1109.

  4. Després JP. Is visceral obesity the cause of the metabolic syndrome? Ann Med 2006;38:52-63.

  5. Stice E, Spoor S, Bohon C, Small M. Relation between obesity and blunted striatal response to food is moderated by TaqIA A1 Allele. Science 2008;322:449-452.

  6. Villalobos-Comparán M, Flores-Dorantes MT, Villarreal-Molina MT, Rodríguez- Cruz M, García-Ulloa A, Robles L, et al. The FTO gene is associated with adulthood obesity in the Mexican population. Obesity 2008 doi:10.1038/oby.2008.367.

  7. Kopelman P. Obesity as a medical problem. Nature 2000;404:635-643.

  8. Trichopoulou A, Yiannakouris N, Bamia C, Benetou V, Trichopoulos D, Ordovas J. Genetic predisposition, nongenetic risk factors, and coronary infarct. Arch Intern Med 2008;168:891-896.

  9. Mensink M, Blaak E, Vidal H, de Bruin T, Glatz J, Saris W. Lifestyle changes and lipid metabolism gene expression and protein content in skeletal muscle of subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. Diabetologia 2003;46:1082-1089.

  10. Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública. Diabetes mellitus. Tomo 2. La salud de los adultos. Encuesta Nacional de Salud (ENSA, 2000). México: Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Secretaría de Salud; 2001.

  11. Olaiz-Fernández G, Rivera-Dommarco J, Shamah-Levy T, Rojas R, Villalpando-Hernández S, Hernández-Ávila M, Sepúlveda-Amor J. Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición 2006. Cuernavaca, Morelos, México: Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública; 2006.

  12. Ortiz-Hernández L, Delgado-Sánchez G, Hernández-Briones A. Cambios en factores relacionados con la transición alimentaria y nutricional de México. Gac Med Mex 2006;142:181-193.

  13. García E. ¿Qué es la obesidad? Rev Endocrinol Nutr 2004;12:S88-S90.

  14. Manson JE, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ, Hankinson SE, et al. Body weight and mortality among women. NEJM 1995;333:677-685.

  15. Madala M, Franklin B, Chen A, Berman A, Roe M, Peterson E. McCullough P for the CRUSADE investigators Obesity and age and first non-ST segment elevation myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008;52:979-985.

  16. Wolf AM. Colditz GA. Current estimates of the economic cost of obesity in the United States. Obesity Res 1998;6:97-106.

  17. Frenk J. México: Salud 2001-2005. México: Secretaría de Salud; 2006.

  18. Palaniappan L, Carnethon M, Fortmann S. Heterogeneity in the relationship between ethnicity, BMI, and fasting insulin. Diabetes Care 2002;25:1351-1357.

  19. Simoons M, Bonneux L. Obesity, cardiology and beyond. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008;52:986-987.

  20. Stefan N, Kantartzis K, Machann J, Schick F, Thamer C, Rittig R, et al. Identification and characterization of metabolically benign obesity in humans. Arch Intern Med 2008;168:1609-1616.

  21. Lemieux S, Prud’homme D, Bouchard C, Tremblav A, Després J. A single threshold value of waist girth identifies normal weight and overweight subjects with excess visceral adipose tissue. Am J Clin Nutr l996;64:685-693.

  22. Arsenault B, Lachance D, Lemieux I, Almeras N, Tremblay A, Bouchard C, et al. Visceral adipose tissue accumulation, cardiorespiratory fitness, and features of the metabolic syndrome. Arch Intern Med 2007;16:1518-1525.

  23. Pou K, Massaro J, Hoffmann U, Lien K, Vasan R, O’Donnell C, et al. Patterns of abdominal fat distribution the Framingham Heart Study. Diabetes Care 2009;32:481-485.

  24. Landsberg L. Body fat distribution and cardiovascular risk a tale of 2 sites. Arch Intern Med 2008;168:1607-1608.

  25. Hu FB, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Colditz G, Liu S, Solomon CG et al. Diet, lifestyle, and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. N Engl J Med 2001;345:790-797.

  26. Lakka H, Lakka T, Tuomilehto J, Salonen J. Abdominal obesity is associated with increased risk of acute coronary events in men. Eur Heart J 2002;23:706-713.

  27. Burke G, Bertoni A, Shea S, Tracy R, Watson K, Blumenthal R, et al. The impact of obesity on cardiovascular disease risk factors and subclinical vascular disease the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Arch Intern Med 2008;168:928-935.

  28. Blüher M, Engeli S, Klöting N, Berndt J, Fasshauer M, Bátkai S, et al. Dysregulation of the peripheral and adipose tissue endocannabinoid system in human abdominal. Obesity Diabetes 2006;55:3053-3060.

  29. Shoelson S, Lee J, Goldfine A. Inflammation and insulin resistance. J Clin Invest 2006;116:1793-1801.

  30. Bernstein LE, Berry J, Kim S, Canavan B, Grinspoon S. Effects of etanercept in patients with the metabolic syndrome. Arch Intern Med 2006;166:902-908.

  31. Cruz M, García-Macedo I, García-Valerio Y, Gutiérrez M, Medina-Navarro R, Durán G, et al. Low adiponectin levels predict type 2 diabetes in mexican children. Diabetes Care 2004:27:1451-1453.

  32. Kadowaki T, Yamauchi T, Kubota N, Hara K, Ueki K, Tobe K. Adiponectin and adiponectin receptors in insulin resistance, diabetes, and the metabolic syndrome. J Clin Invest 2006;116:1784-1792.

  33. Trujillo M, Scherer P. Adiponectin-journey from an adipocyte secretory protein to biomarker of the metabolic syndrome. J Intern Med 2005;257:167-175.

  34. Herman M, Kahn B. Glucose transport and sensing in the maintenance of glucose homeostasis and metabolic harmony. J Clin Invest 2006;116:1767-1765.

  35. Yu Y, Ginsberg H. Adipocyte signaling and lipid homeostasis sequelae of insulin-resistant adipose tissue. Circ Res 2005;96:1042-1052.

  36. Boden G, Shulman GI. Free fatty acids in obesity and type 2 diabetes: defining their role in the development of insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction. Eur J Clin Invest 2002;32(Suppl 3):14-23.

  37. Itani SI, Ruderman NB, Schmieder F, Boden G. Lipid-induced insulin resistance in human muscle is associated with changes in diacylglycerol, protein kinase C, and IkappaB-alpha. Diabetes 2002;51:2005-2011.

  38. Flores M, Barquera S, Carrión C, Rojas R, Villalpando S, Olaiz-Fernández G, et al. Concentraciones de proteína C reactiva en adultos mexicanos: alta prevalencia de un factor de riesgo cardiovascular. Salud Publica Mex 2007;(Supl 3):S348-S360.

  39. Barzilay J, Blaum C, Moore T, Xue Q, Hirsch C, Walston J, et al. Insulin resistance and inflammation as precursors of frailty the cardiovascular health study. Arch Intern Med 2007;167:635-641.

  40. Gómez R, Aguilar-Salinas CA, Morán-Villota S, Barradas-González R, Herrera-Márquez R, Cruz M, et al. Lack of agreement between the revised criteria of impaired fasting glucose and impaired glucose tolerance in children with excess body weight Diabetes Care 2004:27:2229-2233.

  41. Mino D, Wacher N, Amato D, Burbano G, Fonseca ME, Revilla C, et al. Insulin resistance in offspring of hypertensive subjects. J Hypertens 1996;14:1189-1193.

  42. Anand S, Yi Q, Gerstein H, Lonn E, Jacobs R, Vuksan V, et al. Relationship of metabolic syndrome and fibrinolytic dysfunction to cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2003;108:420-425.

  43. Musso G, Gambino R, Bo S, Uberti B, Biroli G, Pagano G, et al. Should nonalcoholic fatty liver disease be included in the definition of metabolic syndrome? Diabetes Care 2008;31:562-568.

  44. Mino D, Amato D, Cuevas ML, Fonseca ME, Burbano G, Wacher N, et al. Relation of insulin resistance and overweight with cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate levels. Arch Med Res 2002;33:524-530.

  45. Chen J, Gu D, Huang J, Rao D, Jaquish C, Hixson J, et al. For the GenSalt Collaborative Research Group Metabolic Syndrome and salt sensitivity of blood pressure in non-diabetic people in China: a dietary intervention study. Lancet 2009;373:829-835.

  46. World Health Organization. Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Report of a WHO consultation. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1999.

  47. Arjona-Villicaña R, Gómez-Díaz R, Aguilar-Salinas C. Controversias en el diagnóstico del síndrome metabólico en poblaciones pediátricas. Bol Med Hosp Infant Mex 2008;65:488-500.

  48. Gómez-Díaz R, Martínez-Hernández A, Aguilar-Salinas C, Violante R, Alarcón A, Villarruel M, et al. Percentile distribution of the waist circumference among Mexican pre-adolescents of a primary school in México city. Diab Obes Metab 2005;7:716-721.

  49. Executive Summary of the Third Report of The National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol In Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 2001;285:2486-2497.

  50. Alberti K, Zimmet P, Shaw J. The metabolic syndrome: a new world wide definition from the International Diabetes Federation. Lancet 2005;366:1059-1062.

  51. Park Y, Zhu S, Palaniappan L, Heshka S, Carnethon M, Heymsfield S. Prevalence and associated risk factor findings in the US population from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:427-436.

  52. Palaniappan L, Carnethon M, Fortmann S. Heterogeneity in the relationship between ethnicity, BMI, and fasting insulin. Diabetes Care 2002;25:1351-1357.

  53. Aguilar-Salinas C, Rojas R, Gómez-Pérez F, Valles V, Ríos-Torres J, Franco A, et al. High prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Mexico. Arch Med Res 2004;35:76-81.

  54. Lorenzo C, Williams K, González-Villalpando C, Haffner S. The prevalence of the metabolic syndrome did not increase in Mexico city between 1990-1992 and 1997-1999. Despite more central obesity. Diabetes Care 2005;28:2480-2485.

  55. Lorenzo C, Serrano-Ríos M, Martínez-Larrad M, González-Sánchez J, Seclén S, Villena A, et al. Geographic variations of the International Diabetes Federation and the National Cholesterol Education Program-Adult Treatment Panel III. Definitions of the metabolic syndrome in nondiabetic subjects. Diabetes Care 2006;29:685-691.

  56. Del-Río-Navarro B, Velázquez-Monroy O, Lara-Esqueda A, Violante-Ortiz R, Fanghanel G, Pérez-Sánchez L, et al. Obesity and metabolic risks in children. Arch Med Res 2008;39:215-221.

  57. Zimmet P, Alberti G, Kaufman F, Tajima N, Silink M, Arslanian S, et al. Metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents Lancet 2007;369:2060-2061.

  58. Cheung Y, Machin D, Karlberg J, Khoo K. A longitudinal study of pediatric body mass index values predicted health in middle age J Clin Epidemiol 2004;57:1316-1322.

  59. Ford ES, Li C, Zhao G, Pearson WS, Mokdad AH. Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among U.S. adolescents using the definition from the International Diabetes Federation. Diabetes Care 2008;31:587-589.

  60. Studies To Treat or Prevent Pediatric Type 2 Diabetes (STOPP-T2D) Prevention Study Group Prevalence of the Metabolic Syndrome Among a Racially/Ethnically Diverse Group of US. Eighth-grade adolescents and associations with fasting insulin and homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance levels. Diabetes Care 2008;31:2020-2025.

  61. Reinehr T, de Sousa G, Toschke A, Andle W. Comparison of metabolic syndrome prevalence using eight different definitions: a critical approach. Arch Dis Child 2007;92:1067-1072.

  62. Halley E, Borges G, Talavera J, Orozco R, Vargas-Alemán C, Huitrón- Bravo G, et al. Body mass index and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome among children and adolescents in two Mexican populations. J Adolesc Health 2007;40:521-526.

  63. Kelishadi R. Childhood overweight, obesity, and the metabolic syndrome in developing countries. Epidemiol Rev 2007;29:62-76.

  64. Vasan R, Pencina M, Cobain M, Freiberg M, D’Agostino R. Estimated risks for developing obesity in the Framingham Heart Study. Ann Intern Med 2005;143:473-480.

  65. Cartwright M, Tchkonia T, Kirkland J. Aging in adipocytes: potential impact of inherent, depot-specific mechanisms. Exp Gerontol 2007;42(6):463-471.

  66. Hernández-Ono A, Monter-Carreola G, Zamora-González J, Cardoso- Saldaña G, Posadas-Sánchez R, Torres-Tamayo M, et al. Association of visceral fat with coronary risk factors in a population-based sample of postmenopausal women. Int J Obes 2002;26,33-39.

  67. Carr M. The emergence of the metabolic syndrome with menopause. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:2404-2411.

  68. Korhonen S, Hippeläinen M, Niskanen L, Vanhala M, Saarikoski S. Relationship of the metabolic syndrome and obesity to polycystic ovary syndrome: a controlled, population-based study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;184:289-296.

  69. Hardy L, Dobbins T, Denney-Wilson E, Okely A, Booth M. Sedentariness, small-screen recreation, and fitness in youth. Am J Prev Med 2009;36:120-125.

  70. Ferreira I, Henry R, Twisk J, van Mechelen W, Kemper H, Stehouwer C. The metabolic syndrome, cardiopulmonary fitness, and subcutaneous trunk fat as independent determinants of arterial stiffness the Amsterdam Growth and Health Longitudinal Study. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:875-882.

  71. Hu F, Li T, Colditz G, Willet W, Manson J. Television watching and other sedentary behaviours in relation to risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. JAMA 2003;289:1785-1791.

  72. Drewnowski A. The real contribution of added sugars and fats to obesity. Epidemiol Rev 2007;29:160-171.

  73. Ferreira I, Twisk J, van Mechelen W, Kemper H, Stehouwer C. Development of fatness, fitness, and lifestyle from adolescence to the age of 36 years determinants of the metabolic syndrome in young adults: the Amsterdam Growth and Health Longitudinal Study. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:42-48.

  74. Thorkild S. The changing lifestyle in the world: body weight and what else? Diabetes Care 2000;23(Suppl 2):B1-B4.

  75. Vartanian L, Schwartz M, Borwnell K. Effects of soft drink consumption no nutrition and health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Public Health 2007;97:667-675.

  76. Nielsen S, Popkin B. Patterns and trends in food portion sizes 1977-1998. JAMA 2003;289:450-453.

  77. Rodríguez M, Guerrero-Romero F, Brito-Zurita M, Rascón-Pacheco R, Pérez-Fuentes R, Sánchez-Guillén MC, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors and acculturation in yaquis and Tepehuanos indians from Mexico. Arch Med Res 2008;39:352-357.

  78. Caprio S, Daniels S, Drewnowski A, Kaufman F, Palinkas L, Rosenbloom A, et al. Influence of race, ethnicity, and culture on childhood obesity: implications for prevention and treatment a consensus statement of shaping America’s health and the obesity society. Diabetes Care 2008;31:2211-2221.

  79. Wang Y, Beydoun M. The obesity epidemic in the United States. Gender, age, socioeconomic, racial/ethnic, and geographic characteristics: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Epidemiol Rev 2007;29:6-28.

  80. Wilsgaard T, Jacobsen B, Arnesen E. Determining lifestyle correlates of body mass index using multilevel analyses: The Tromso Study, 1979-2001. Am J Epidemiol 2005;162:1179-1188.

  81. Nestle M. Food marketing and childhood obesity. A matter of policy. NEJM 2006;354:2527-2529.

  82. Robinson T, Borzekowski D, Matheson D, Kraemer H. Effects of fast food branding on young children’s taste preferences. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2007;16:792-797.

  83. Christakis N, Fowler J. The spread of obesity in a large social network over 32 years. NEJM 2007;357:370-379.

  84. Papas , Ewing R, Helzlsouer K, Gary T, Klassen A. The built environment and obesity. Epidemiol Rev 2007;29:129-143.

  85. De Vogli R, Chandola T, Marmot M. Negative aspects of close relationships and heart disease. Arch Intern Med 2007;167:1951-1957.

  86. Bass J, Turek F. Sleepless in America a pathway to obesity and the metabolic syndrome? Arch Intern Med 2005;165:15-16.

  87. Troxel W, Matthews K, Gallo L, Kuller L. Marital quality and occurrence of the metabolic syndrome in women. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:1022-1027.

  88. Barker DJ, Osmond C, Golding J, Kuh D, Wadsworth ME. Growth in utero, blood pressure in childhood and adult life, and mortality from cardiovascular disease. BMJ 1989;298:564-567.

  89. Hales CN, Barker DJ, Clark PM, et al. Fetal and infant growth and impaired glucose tolerance at age 64. BMJ 1991;303:1019-1022.

  90. Sparén P, Vågerö D, Shestov D, Plavinskaja S, Parfenova N, Hoptiar V, et al. Long term mortality after severe starvation during the siege of Leningrad: prospective cohort study. BMJ 2003;328;11; doi:10.1136/bmj.37942.603970.9A

  91. Reaven GM. The metabolic syndrome: is this diagnosis necessary? Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83:1237-1247.

  92. Kahn R. Metabolic syndrome. What is the clinical usefulness? Lancet 2008;371:1892-1893.

  93. Hoang K, Ghandehari H, López V, Barboza M, Wong N. Global coronary heart disease risk assessment of individuals with the metabolic syndrome in the US. Diabetes Care 2008;31:1405-1409.

  94. Zornitzki T, Ayzenberg A, Gandelman G, Vered S, Yaskil E, Faraggi D, et al. Diabetes, but not the metabolic syndrome, predicts the severity and extent of coronary artery disease in women. Q J Med 2007;100:575-581.

  95. Ford E, Li C, Sattar N. Metabolic syndrome and incident diabetes current state of the evidence. Diabetes Care 2008;31:1898-1904.

  96. Sattar N, McConnachie A, Shaper A, Blauw G, Buckley B, de Craen A, et al. Can metabolic syndrome usefully predict cardiovasculardisease and diabetes? Outcome data from two prospective studies. Lancet 2008;371:1927-1935.

  97. Hanley A, Karter A, Williams K, Festa A, D’Agostino R, Wagenknecht L, et al. Prediction of type 2 diabetes mellitus with alternative definitions of the metabolic syndrome. The Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study. Circulation 2005;112:3713-3721.

  98. McCarron P, Smith GD, Okasha M, McEwen J. Smoking in adolescence and young adulthood and mortality in later life: prospective observational study. J Epidemiol Community Health 2001;55:334-335.

  99. Loria C, Liu K, Lewis C, Hulley S, Sidney S, Schreiner P, et al. Early adult risk factor levels and subsequent coronary artery calcification The CARDIA Study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007;49:2013-2020.

  100. Gami A, Witt B, Howard D, Erwin P, Gami L, Somers V, Montori V. Metabolic syndrome and risk of incident cardiovascular events and death a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007;49:403-414.

  101. Wannamethee S, Shaper G, Lennon L, Morris R. Metabolic syndrome vs. Framingham risk score for prediction of coronary heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:2644-2650.

  102. Ferrannini E, Balkau B. Insulin: in search of a syndrome Diabet Med 2002;19:724-729.

  103. Bell G, Polonsky K. Diabetes mellitus and genetically programmed defects in b-cell function. Nature 2001;414:788-791.

  104. Ferranini E. Controversy in clinical endocrinology. Metabolic syndrome: a solution in search of a problem. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007;92:396-398.

  105. Ferranini E. Is insulin resistance the cause of the metabolic syndrome? Ann Med 2006;38:42-51.

  106. Ferrannini E, Balkau B, Coppack S, Dekker J, Mari A, Nolan J, Walker M, Natali A, Beck-Nielsen H. And the RISC Investigators. Insulin resistance, insulin response, and obesity as indicators of metabolic risk. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007;92:2885-2892.

  107. Hanley AJ, Karter AJ, Festa A, D’Agostino Jr RB, Wagenknecht LE, Savage PJ, Tracy RP, Saad MF, Haffner S. Factor analysis of metabolic syndrome using directly measured insulin sensitivity. The Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study. Diabetes 2004;51:2642-2647.

  108. Gianinni E, Testa R. The metabolic syndrome: all criteria are equal, but some criteria are more equal than others. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:2787-2788.

  109. Kahn R, Ferranini E, Buse J, Stern M. The metabolic syndrome: time for a critical appraisal. Joint statement from the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2005;28:2289-2304.

  110. Aguilar-Salinas C, Rojas R, González-Villalpando C, Gómez-Pérez F, Mehta R, Olaiz G, et al. Design and validation of a population- based definition of the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care 2006;29:2420-2426.

  111. Winjndaele K, Beunen G, Duvigneaud N, Matton L, Duquet W, Thomis M, et al. A continuous metabolic syndrome risk score. Diabetes Care 2006;29: 2629.

  112. Parikh N, Pencina M, Wang T, Benjamin E, Lanier K, Levy D, et al. A risk score for predicting near-term incidence of hypertension: the Framingham Heart Study. Ann Intern Med 2008;148:102-110.

  113. Vickers A, Basch E, Kattan M. Against diagnosis. Ann Intern Med 2008;149:200-203.

  114. Tenenbaum A, Motro M, Fisman E, Tanne D, Boyko V, Behar S. Bezafibrate for the secondary prevention of myocardial infarction in patients with metabolic syndrome. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:1154-1160.

  115. Bernstein L, Berry J, Kim S, Canavan B, Grinspoon S. Effects of etanercept in patients with the metabolic syndrome. Arch Intern Med 2006;166:902-908.

  116. Després J, Lemieux I, Prud’homme D. Treatment of obesity: need to focus on high risk abdominally obese patients. BMJ 2001;322:716-20.

  117. Després J, Pérusse L. Genetic and nutritional determinants of the metabolic syndrome: introduction. J Nutrigenet Nutrigenomics 2008;1:97-99.

  118. Watkins L, Sherwood A, Feinglos M, Hinderliter A, Babyak M, Gullette E, et al. Effects of exercise and weight loss on cardiac risk factors associated with syndrome X. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:1889-1895.

  119. Fung T, Chiuve S, McCullough M, Rexrode K, Logroscino G, Hu F. Adherence to a DASH-style diet and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke in women. Arch Intern Med 2008;168:713-720.

  120. Bazzano L, He J, Ogden L, Loria C, Whelton P. Dietary fiber intake and reduced risk of coronary heart disease in US men and women. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:1897-1904.

  121. Dickinson B, Havas S; the Council on Science and Public Health, American Medical Association. Reducing the population burden of cardiovascular disease by reducing sodium intake a report of the Council on Science and Public Health. Arch Intern Med 2007;167:1460-1468.

  122. Akesson A, Weismayer C, Newby P, Wolk A. Combined effect of low-risk dietary and lifestyle behaviors in primary prevention of myocardial infarction in women. Arch Intern Med 2007;167:2122-2127.

  123. Balkau B, Picard P, Vol S, Fezeu L, Eschwege E; for the DESIR Study Group. Consequences of change in waist circumference on cardiometabolic risk factors over 9 years data from an epidemiological study on the insulin resistance syndrome (DESIR). Diabetes Care 2007;30:1901-1903.

  124. Johnson F, Cooke L, Croker H, Wardle J. Changing perceptions of weight in Great Britain: comparison of two population surveys. BMJ 2008;337:a494 doi:10.1136/bmj.a494.

  125. Rachmani R, Slavachevski I, Berla M, Frommer-Shapira R, Ravid M. Teaching and motivating patients to control their risk factors retards progression of cardiovascular as well as microvascular sequelae of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Arandomized prospective 8 years follow-up study. Diabet Med 2005;22:410-414.

  126. Wood D, Kotseva K, Connolly S, Jennings C, Mead A, Jones J, et al. On behalf of EUROACTION Study Group Nurse-coordinated multidisciplinary, family-based cardiovascular disease prevention programme (EUROACTION) for patients with coronary heart disease and asymptomatic individuals at high risk of cardiovascular disease: a paired, cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2008;371:1999-2012.

  127. Schwarz P, Schwarz J, Schuppenies A, Bornstein S, Schulze J. Development of a diabetes prevention management program for clinical practice. Public Health Rep 2007;122:258 -263.

  128. Schwarz P, Reimann M, Li J, Bergmann A, Licinio J, Wong M, et al. The metabolic syndrome. A global challenge for prevention. Horm Metab Res 2007;39:777-780.




2020     |     www.medigraphic.com