medigraphic.com
ISSN 2500-7106 (Electronic)
ISSN 0123-2576 (Print)
Medicina & Laboratorio

2011, Number 05-06

<< Back Next >>

Medicina & Laboratorio 2011; 17 (05-06)

Vitamin D: new paradigms

Zuluaga ENA, Alfaro VJM, Balthazar GV, Jiménez BKE, Campuzano MG

Language: Spanish
References: 110
Page: 211-246
PDF size: 1552.37 Kb.


ABSTRACT

Vitamin D is no longer just a vitamin, it is now considered an important prohormone with multiple effects on different tissues and in various physiological processes. Its action is not only related to bone mineral metabolism and calcium and phosphorus balance, but also with significant effects on multiple cell types and in various mechanisms such as secretion and effect of insulin, endothelial function, regulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, cell cycle control and apoptosis, immunological self-tolerance, and effectiveness of the immune system against infections, among many effects. Therefore, vitamin D deficiency is associated not only with rickets and osteomalacia, but also with a higher risk for diabetes and cardiovascular disease, and malignant, infectious and autoimmune diseases. The prevalence of vitamin D deficiency is higher than previously thought, even in tropical regions where there is better sun exposure. This deficiency is becoming an epidemic on the rise, not yet well recognized, with important implications for population health, considered as a risk factor for multiple diseases, both acute and chronic, which constitute the greatest epidemiological morbidity and mortality burden worldwide. Both vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency can occur in Colombia, despite being in the torrid zone; this is basically due to the coexistence of risk factors for the deficiency, such as inadequate sun exposure, insufficient vitamin D intake, dark skin, little outdoor activity, obesity, use of some medications and breastfeeding without supplementation, among others. Effective preventive measures must be taken to avoid the different risk factors that lead to this deficiency, and thus to other diseases that may arise.


REFERENCES

  1. Plum L, DeLuca H. The Functional Metabolism and Molecular Biology of Vitamin D Action. Clinical Reviews in Bone and Mineral Metabolism 2009; 7: 20-41.

  2. Plum LA, DeLuca HF. Vitamin D, disease and therapeutic opportunities. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2010; 9: 941-955.

  3. Norman AW. From vitamin D to hormone D: fundamentals of the vitamin D endocrine system essential for good health. Am J Clin Nutr 2008; 88: 491S-499S.

  4. Verstuyf A, Carmeliet G, Bouillon R, Mathieu C. Vitamin D: a pleiotropic hormone. Kidney Int 2010; 78: 140-145.

  5. Holick MF. Vitamin D: extraskeletal health. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2010; 39: 381-400.

  6. Forrest KY, Stuhldreher WL. Prevalence and correlates of vitamin D deficiency in US adults. Nutr Res 2011; 31: 48-54.

  7. Kumar J, Muntner P, Kaskel FJ, Hailpern SM, Melamed ML. Prevalence and associations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency in US children: NHANES 2001- 2004. Pediatrics 2009; 124: e362-370.

  8. Thacher TD, Fischer PR, Strand MA, Pettifor JM. Nutritional rickets around the world: causes and future directions. Ann Trop Paediatr 2006; 26: 1-16.

  9. Christakos S, Ajibade DV, Dhawan P, Fechner AJ, Mady LJ. Vitamin D: metabolism. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2010; 39: 243-253, table of contents.

  10. Holick MF, Chen TC. Vitamin D deficiency: a worldwide problem with health consequences. Am J Clin Nutr 2008; 87: 1080S-1086S.

  11. Adams JS, Hewison M. Update in vitamin D. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95: 471-478.

  12. Dusso AS, Brown AJ, Slatopolsky E. Vitamin D. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2005; 289: F8-28.

  13. Holick MF. Vitamin D: importance in the prevention of cancers, type 1 diabetes, heart disease, and osteoporosis. Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 79: 362-371.

  14. Reichrath J, Lehmann B, Carlberg C, Varani J, Zouboulis CC. Vitamins as hormones. Horm Metab Res 2007; 39: 71-84.

  15. Kochupillai N. The physiology of vitamin D : current concepts. Indian J Med Res 2008; 127: 256-262.

  16. Morris HA, Anderson PH. Autocrine and paracrine actions of vitamin d. Clin Biochem Rev 2010; 31: 129-138.

  17. St-Arnaud R. The direct role of vitamin D on bone homeostasis. Arch Biochem Biophys 2008; 473: 225-230.

  18. Renkema KY, Alexander RT, Bindels RJ, Hoenderop JG. Calcium and phosphate homeostasis: concerted interplay of new regulators. Ann Med 2008; 40: 82-91.

  19. Chun RF, Adams JS, Hewison M. Back to the future: a new look at ‘old’ vitamin D. J Endocrinol 2008; 198: 261-269.

  20. Verhave G, Siegert CE. Role of vitamin D in cardiovascular disease. Neth J Med 2010; 68: 113-118.

  21. Pike JW, Meyer MB. The vitamin D receptor: new paradigms for the regulation of gene expression by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3). Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2010; 39: 255-269, table of contents.

  22. Mizwicki MT, Norman AW. The vitamin D sterol-vitamin D receptor ensemble model offers unique insights into both genomic and rapid-response signaling. Sci Signal 2009; 2: re4.

  23. Nemere I, Yoshimoto Y, Norman AW. Calcium transport in perfused duodena from normal chicks: enhancement within fourteen minutes of exposure to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Endocrinology 1984; 115: 1476-1483.

  24. Norman AW. Minireview: vitamin D receptor: new assignments for an already busy receptor. Endocrinology 2006; 147: 5542-5548.

  25. Holick MF. Vitamin D deficiency. N Engl J Med 2007; 357: 266-281.

  26. Montecino MA, Lian JB, Stein JL, Stein GS, van Wijnen AJ, Cruzat F. Biological and Molecular Effects of Vitamin D on Bone. In: Holick MF, ed. Vitamin D physiology, molecular biology, and clinical applications, 2nd Ed. Boston: Humana Press; pp. 189-209, 2010.

  27. Clarke B. Normal bone anatomy and physiology. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2008; 3 Suppl 3: S131-139. 28. Molina-Restrepo JF, González-Naranjo LA. Osteoporosis: enfoque clínico y de laboratorio. Medicina & Laboratorio; 16.

  28. Mathieu C, Gysemans C, Giulietti A, Bouillon R. Vitamin D and diabetes. Diabetologia 2005; 48: 1247-1257.

  29. Holick MF. Diabetes and the vitamin d connection. Curr Diab Rep 2008; 8: 393-398.

  30. Bloomgarden ZT. The American Diabetes Association’s 57th annual advanced postgraduate course: diabetes risk, vitamin D, polycystic ovary syndrome, and obstructive sleep apnea. Diabetes Care 2011; 34: e1-6.

  31. Greer RM, Rogers MA, Bowling FG, Buntain HM, Harris M, Leong GM, et al. Australian children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes have low vitamin D levels. Med J Aust 2007; 187: 59-60.

  32. Littorin B, Blom P, Scholin A, Arnqvist HJ, Blohme G, Bolinder J, et al. Lower levels of plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D among young adults at diagnosis of autoimmune type 1 diabetes compared with control subjects: results from the nationwide Diabetes Incidence Study in Sweden (DISS). Diabetologia 2006; 49: 2847-2852.

  33. Pozzilli P, Cherubini V, Pinelli A, Valenti L, Suraci C. IMDIAB Group. Low levels of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in patients with recent onset type 1 diabetes living in a Mediterranean country. Diabetes 2002; 51: A289.

  34. Mohr SB, Garland CF, Gorham ED, Garland FC. The association between ultraviolet B irradiance, vitamin D status and incidence rates of type 1 diabetes in 51 regions worldwide. Diabetologia 2008; 51: 1391-1398.

  35. Zella JB, McCary LC, DeLuca HF. Oral administration of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 completely protects NOD mice from insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Arch Biochem Biophys 2003; 417: 77-80.

  36. Mathieu C, Waer M, Laureys J, Rutgeerts O, Bouillon R. Prevention of autoimmune diabetes in NOD mice by 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3. Diabetologia 1994; 37: 552-558.

  37. Mathieu C, Laureys J, Sobis H, Vandeputte M, Waer M, Bouillon R. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 prevents insulitis in NOD mice. Diabetes 1992; 41: 1491-1495.

  38. Gregori S, Giarratana N, Smiroldo S, Uskokovic M, Adorini L. A 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) analog enhances regulatory T-cells and arrests autoimmune diabetes in NOD mice. Diabetes 2002; 51: 1367-1374.

  39. Hypponen E. Vitamin D and increasing incidence of type 1 diabetes-evidence for an association? Diabetes Obes Metab 2010; 12: 737-743.

  40. Tai K, Need AG, Horowitz M, Chapman IM. Vitamin D, glucose, insulin, and insulin sensitivity. Nutrition 2008; 24: 279-285.

  41. Hypponen E, Laara E, Reunanen A, Jarvelin MR, Virtanen SM. Intake of vitamin D and risk of type 1 diabetes: a birth-cohort study. Lancet 2001; 358: 1500-1503.

  42. Stene LC, Joner G. Use of cod liver oil during the first year of life is associated with lower risk of childhoodonset type 1 diabetes: a large, population-based, casecontrol study. Am J Clin Nutr 2003; 78: 1128-1134.

  43. Zipitis CS, Akobeng AK. Vitamin D supplementation in early childhood and risk of type 1 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Dis Child 2008; 93: 512-517.

  44. Chiu KC, Chu A, Go VL, Saad MF. Hypovitaminosis D is associated with insulin resistance and beta cell dysfunction. Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 79: 820-825.

  45. Ford ES, Ajani UA, McGuire LC, Liu S. Concentrations of serum vitamin D and the metabolic syndrome among U.S. adults. Diabetes Care 2005; 28: 1228-1230.

  46. Borissova AM, Tankova T, Kirilov G, Dakovska L, Kovacheva R. The effect of vitamin D3 on insulin secretion and peripheral insulin sensitivity in type 2 diabetic patients. Int J Clin Pract 2003; 57: 258-261.

  47. Teegarden D, Donkin SS. Vitamin D: emerging new roles in insulin sensitivity. Nutr Res Rev 2009; 22: 82-92.

  48. Pittas AG, Lau J, Hu FB, Dawson-Hughes B. The role of vitamin D and calcium in type 2 diabetes. A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92: 2017-2029.

  49. Takiishi T, Gysemans C, Bouillon R, Mathieu C. Vitamin D and diabetes. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2010; 39: 419-446.

  50. Scragg R, Sowers M, Bell C. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, diabetes, and ethnicity in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Diabetes Care 2004; 27: 2813-2818.

  51. Ross AC, Manson JE, Abrams SA, Aloia JF, Brannon PM, Clinton SK, et al. The 2011 report on dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D from the Institute of Medicine: what clinicians need to know. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96: 53-58.

  52. Eliades M, Pittas AG. Vitamin D and Type 2 Diabetes. In: Holick MF, ed. Vitamin D physiology, molecular biology, and clinical applications, 2nd edition. Boston: Humana Press. pp. 895-919, 2010.

  53. Scragg R. Role of Vitamin D for cardiovascular health. in: Holick MF, ed. Vitamin D physiology, molecular biology, and clinical applications, 2nd edition. Boston: Humana Press. pp. 921-936, 2010.

  54. Zittermann A, Schleithoff SS, Koerfer R. Putting cardiovascular disease and vitamin D insufficiency into perspective. Br J Nutr 2005; 94: 483-492.

  55. Rostand SG. Ultraviolet light may contribute to geographic and racial blood pressure differences. Hypertension 1997; 30: 150-156.

  56. Webb AR, Kline L, Holick MF. Influence of season and latitude on the cutaneous synthesis of vitamin D3: exposure to winter sunlight in Boston and Edmonton will not promote vitamin D3 synthesis in human skin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988; 67: 373-378.

  57. Kendrick J, Targher G, Smits G, Chonchol M. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D deficiency is independently associated with cardiovascular disease in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Atherosclerosis 2009; 205: 255-260.

  58. Souberbielle JC, Body JJ, Lappe JM, Plebani M, Shoenfeld Y, Wang TJ, et al. Vitamin D and musculoskeletal health, cardiovascular disease, autoimmunity and cancer: Recommendations for clinical practice. Autoimmun Rev 2010; 9: 709-715.

  59. Li YC. Molecular Mechanism of Vitamin D in the Cardiovascular System. J Investig Med 2011.

  60. Pittas AG, Chung M, Trikalinos T, Mitri J, Brendel M, Patel K, et al. Systematic review: Vitamin D and cardiometabolic outcomes. Ann Intern Med 2010; 152: 307-314.

  61. Li YC. Vitamin D, renin, and blood pressure. In: Holick MF, ed. Vitamin D physiology, molecular biology, and clinical applications, 2nd edition. Boston: Humana Press; pp. 937-953, 2010.

  62. Vaidya A, Forman JP. Vitamin D and hypertension: current evidence and future directions. Hypertension 2010; 56: 774-779.

  63. Xiang W, Kong J, Chen S, Cao LP, Qiao G, Zheng W, et al. Cardiac hypertrophy in vitamin D receptor knockout mice: role of the systemic and cardiac reninangiotensin systems. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2005; 288: E125-132.

  64. Kim HW, Park CW, Shin YS, Kim YS, Shin SJ, Choi EJ, et al. Calcitriol regresses cardiac hypertrophy and QT dispersion in secondary hyperparathyroidism on hemodialysis. Nephron Clin Pract 2006; 102: c21-29.

  65. Giovannucci E, Liu Y, Hollis BW, Rimm EB. 25-hydroxyvitamin D and risk of myocardial infarction in men: a prospective study. Arch Intern Med 2008; 168: 1174-1180.

  66. Wang TJ, Pencina MJ, Booth SL, Jacques PF, Ingelsson E, Lanier K, et al. Vitamin D deficiency and risk of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2008; 117: 503-511.

  67. Melamed ML, Michos ED, Post W, Astor B. 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and the risk of mortality in the general population. Arch Intern Med 2008; 168: 1629-1637.

  68. Tanaka H, Abe E, Miyaura C, Kuribayashi T, Konno K, Nishii Y, et al. 1 alpha,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol and a human myeloid leukaemia cell line (HL-60). Biochem J 1982; 204: 713-719.

  69. Trump DL, Deeb KK, Johnson CS. Vitamin D: considerations in the continued development as an agent for cancer prevention and therapy. Cancer J 2010; 16: 1-9.

  70. Garland CF, Garland FC, Gorham ED, Lipkin M, Newmark H, Mohr SB, et al. The role of vitamin D in cancer prevention. Am J Public Health 2006; 96: 252-261.

  71. Giovannucci E. Vitamin D status and cancer incidence and mortality. Adv Exp Med Biol 2008; 624: 31-42.

  72. Wang S. Epidemiology of vitamin D in health and disease. Nutr Res Rev 2009; 22: 188-203.

  73. Schwartz GG, Skinner HG. Vitamin D status and cancer: new insights. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2007; 10: 6-11.

  74. Garland CF, Gorham ED, Mohr SB, Grant WB, Giovannucci EL, Lipkin M, et al. Vitamin D and prevention of breast cancer: pooled analysis. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2007; 103: 708-711.

  75. Gorham ED, Mohr SB, Garland FC, Garland CF. Vitamin D for Cancer Prevention and Survival. In: Holick MF, ed. Vitamin D physiology, molecular biology, and clinical applications, 2nd edition. Boston: Humana Press. pp. 813-840, 2010.

  76. Krishnan AV, Trump DL, Johnson CS, Feldman D. The role of vitamin D in cancer prevention and treatment. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2010; 39: 401-418, table of contents.

  77. Lappe JM, Heaney RP. The anti-cancer effect of vitamin D:What do the randomized trials show?. In: Holick MF, ed. Vitamin D physiology, molecular biology, and clinical applications, 2nd edition. Boston: Humana Press. pp. 841-850, 2010

  78. Hewison M. Vitamin D and the immune system: new perspectives on an old theme. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2010; 39: 365-379.

  79. Bouvard B, Annweiler C, Salle A, Beauchet O, Chappard D, Audran M, et al. Extraskeletal effects of vitamin D: facts, uncertainties, and controversies. Joint Bone Spine 2011; 78: 10-16.

  80. Hayes CE, Nashold FE, Spach KM, Pedersen LB. The immunological functions of the vitamin D endocrine system. Cell Mol Biol (Noisy-le-grand) 2003; 49: 277-300.

  81. Schwalfenberg GK. A review of the critical role of vitamin D in the functioning of the immune system and the clinical implications of vitamin D deficiency. Mol Nutr Food Res 2011; 55: 96-108.

  82. Penna G, Adorini L. 1 Alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits differentiation, maturation, activation, and survival of dendritic cells leading to impaired alloreactive T cell activation. J Immunol 2000; 164: 2405-2411.

  83. Adams JS, Hewison M. Unexpected actions of vitamin D: new perspectives on the regulation of innate and adaptive immunity. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 2008; 4: 80-90.

  84. Munger KL, Levin LI, Hollis BW, Howard NS, Ascherio A. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of multiple sclerosis. JAMA 2006; 296: 2832-2838.

  85. Mahon BD, Gordon SA, Cruz J, Cosman F, Cantorna MT. Cytokine profile in patients with multiple sclerosis following vitamin D supplementation. J Neuroimmunol 2003; 134: 128-132.

  86. Jagannath VA, Fedorowicz Z, Asokan GV, Robak EW, Whamond L. Vitamin D for the management of multiple sclerosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010: CD008422.

  87. Merlino LA, Curtis J, Mikuls TR, Cerhan JR, Criswell LA, Saag KG. Vitamin D intake is inversely associated with rheumatoid arthritis: results from the Iowa Women’s Health Study. Arthritis Rheum 2004; 50: 72-77.

  88. Laverny G, Penna G, Vetrano S, Correale C, Nebuloni M, Danese S, et al. Efficacy of a potent and safe vitamin D receptor agonist for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Immunol Lett 2010; 131: 49-58.

  89. Stio M, Martinesi M, Bruni S, Treves C, d’Albasio G, Bagnoli S, et al. Interaction among vitamin D(3) analogue KH 1060, TNF-alpha, and vitamin D receptor protein in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of inflammatory bowel disease patients. Int Immunopharmacol 2006; 6: 1083-1092.

  90. Cutolo M, Otsa K. Review: vitamin D, immunity and lupus. Lupus 2008; 17: 6-10.

  91. Amital H, Szekanecz Z, Szucs G, Danko K, Nagy E, Csepany T, et al. Serum concentrations of 25-OH vitamin D in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) are inversely related to disease activity: is it time to routinely supplement patients with SLE with vitamin D? Ann Rheum Dis 2010; 69: 1155-1157.

  92. Kivity S, Agmon-Levin N, Zisappl M, Shapira Y, Nagy EV, Dankó K, et al. Vitamin D and autoimmune thyroid diseases. Cell Mol Immunol 2011 May;8(3):243-7. Epub 2011 Jan 31 (doi:10.1038/cmi.2010.73).

  93. Chapuy MC, Preziosi P, Maamer M, Arnaud S, Galan P, Hercberg S, et al. Prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in an adult normal population. Osteoporos Int 1997; 7: 439-443.

  94. Holick MF. Vitamin D and health: evolution, biologic functions, and recommended dietary intakes for vitamin D. In: Holick MF, ed. Vitamin D physiology, molecular biology, and clinical applications, 2nd edition. Boston: Humana Press; pp. 3-33, 2010.

  95. Heaney RP. Vitamin D in health and disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2008; 3: 1535-1541.

  96. Pettifor JM. Nutritional and drug-induced rickets and osteomalacia. In: Favus MJ, ed. Nutritional and druginduced rickets and osteomalacia: Primer on the metabolic and bone diseases and disorders of bone metabolism, 5th ed. Washington DC: American Society for Bone and Mineral Research; pp. 330–338, 2006

  97. Misra M, Pacaud D, Petryk A, Collett-Solberg PF, Kappy M. Vitamin D deficiency in children and its mana gement: review of current knowledge and recommendations. Pediatrics 2008; 122: 398-417.

  98. Shroff R, Knott C, Rees L. The virtues of vitamin D-- but how much is too much? Pediatr Nephrol 2010; 25: 1607-1620.

  99. Thacher TD, Clarke BL. Vitamin D insufficiency. Mayo Clin Proc 2011; 86: 50-60.

  100. Diehl JW, Chiu MW. Effects of ambient sunlight and photoprotection on vitamin D status. Dermatol Ther 2010; 23: 48-60.

  101. Lee JM, Smith JR, Philipp BL, Chen TC, Mathieu J, Holick MF. Vitamin D deficiency in a healthy group of mothers and newborn infants. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2007; 46: 42-44.

  102. Vitamin D supplementation: Recommendations for Canadian mothers and infants. Paediatr Child Health 2007; 12: 583-598.

  103. Heaney RP, Holick MF. Why the IOM recommendations for vitamin D are deficient. J Bone Miner Res 2011; 26: 455-457.

  104. Reid IR, Avenell A. Evidence-based policy on dietary calcium and vitamin D. J Bone Miner Res 2011; 26: 452-454.

  105. Holick MF, Biancuzzo RM, Chen TC, Klein EK, Young A, Bibuld D, et al. Vitamin D2 is as effective as vitamin D3 in maintaining circulating concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93: 677-681.

  106. Houghton LA, Vieth R. The case against ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) as a vitamin supplement. Am J Clin Nutr 2006; 84: 694-697.

  107. Glendenning P, Chew GT, Seymour HM, Gillett MJ, Goldswain PR, Inderjeeth CA, et al. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in vitamin D-insufficient hip fracture patients after supplementation with ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol. Bone 2009; 45: 870-875.

  108. Leventis P, Kiely PD. The tolerability and biochemical effects of high-dose bolus vitamin D2 and D3 supplementation in patients with vitamin D insufficiency. Scand J Rheumatol 2009; 38: 149-153.

  109. Armas LA, Hollis BW, Heaney RP. Vitamin D2 is much less effective than vitamin D3 in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 5387-5391.

  110. Heaney RP, Recker RR, Grote J, Horst RL, Armas LA. Vitamin D(3) is more potent than vitamin D(2) in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96: E447-452.




2020     |     www.medigraphic.com