Fuller J

Language: English
References: 70
Page: 48-60
PDF size: 470.96 Kb.

ABSTRACT

The HIV-1 epidemic actually consists of three distinct families of viruses with independent transmissions, and their characteristics. The current status of the global epidemic indicated that in 1998 UNAIDS estimated that 33.4 million persons were living with HIV/AIDS, with 16,000 new infections occurring every day (half of them in persons under 25 years of age). In 1998 this disease included 590,000 children.
This work also analyzed the HIV pathogenesis, the natural history infection and main characteristics of the antiretroviral therapies, since adherence, drug toxicities, dyslipidemias and dysglycemia disorders; to lipodystrophies postexposure prophylaxis.

REFERENCES

1. Vogt, P.K. Historical Introduction to the General Properties of Retroviruses, in Retroviruses (Coffin JM, Hughes SH and Varmus HE, eds.), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1997, p. 7.

2. Marlink R, Kanki P, Thior I et al. Reduced rate of disease development after HIV-2 infection as compared to HIV-1. Science 1994; 265: 1587-1590.

3. De Cock KM, Adjorlolo G, Ekpini E et al. Epidemiology and transmission of HIV-2: Why there is no HIV-2 pandemic. JAMA 1993; 270: 2-83-86.

4. Whittle H, Morris J, Todd J et al. HIV-2-infected patients survive longer than HIV-1-infected patients. AIDS 1994; 8: 1617-20.

5. Kanki PJ, Travers KU, Boup S, et al. Slower heterosexual spread of HIV-2 than HIV-1. Lancet 1994; 343: 943-46.

6. Markovitz DM. Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus type 2. Ann Intern Med 1993; 118: 211-218.

7. Kong LI, Lee SW, Kappes JC et al. West African HIV-2-related human retrovirus with attenuated cytopathicity. Science 1988; 240: 1525-30.

8. Hirsch VM, Olmsted RA, Murphey-Corb M et al. An African primate lentivirus (SIVsm) closely related to HIV-2. Nature 1989; 339: 389-92.

9. Hahn B. The origin of HIV-1: A puzzle solved? 6th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, IL, January 31-February 4, 1999, session S2.

10. Horsburgh CR, Holmberg SD. The global distribution of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2) infection. Transfusion 1988; 28: 192-5.

11. Simon F, Mauclere P, Roques P et al. Identification of a new human immunodeficiency virus type 1 distinct from group M and group O. Nat Med 1998; 4: 1032-37.

12. Gao F, Bailes E, Robertson DL et al. Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes. Nature 1999; 397: 436-441.

13. Zhu T, Korber BT, Nahmias AJ et al. An African HIV-1 sequence from 1959 and implications for the origin of the epidemic. Nature 1998; 391: 594-97.

14. Weiss RA, Wrangham RW. From Pan to pandemic. Nature 1999; 397: 385-6.

15. Friedman-Kien AE, Laubenstein LJ, Zolla-Pazner S. Disseminated Kaposi´s sarcoma in homosexual men. Ann Int Med 1982; 96: 693-700.

16. Gottlieb MS, Schroff R, Saxon A, et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and mucosal candidiasis in previously healthy homosexual men: Evidence of a new acquired cellular immunodeficiency. N Engl J Med 1981; 305: 1425-31

17. Masur H, Michelis MA, Cunningham-Rundles S, et al. An outbreak of community-acquired Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia: Initial manifestation of cellular immune dysfunction. N Engl J Med 1981; 305: 1431-38.

18. Balter M. AIDS now world´s fourth biggest killer. Science 1999; 284: 1101.

19. Kilby JM, Hopkins S, Venetta TM et al. Potent suppression of HIV-1 replication in humans by T-20, a peptide inhibitor of gp41-mediated virus entry. Nat Med 1998; 4: 1302-7.

20. Koot M, van Leeuwen R, de Goede REY, et al. Conversion rate towards a syncytium-inducing (SI) phenotype during different stages of human immu nodeficiency virus type 1 infection and prognostic value of SI phenotype for survival after AIDS diagnosis. J Infect Dis 1999; 179: 254-8.

21. Kahn JO, Walker BD. Acute human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 33-39.

22. Schacker TW, Hughes JP, Shea T et al. Biological and virologic characteristics of primary HIV infection. Ann Intern Med 1998; 128: 613-20.

23. Zaitseva M, Blauvelt A, Lee S et al. Expression and function of CCR5 and CXCR4 on human Langerhans cells and macrophages: Implications for HIV primary infection. Nat Med 1997; 3: 1359-75.

24. Russell ND, Sepkowitz KA. Primary HIV infection: Clinical, immunologic, and virologic predictors of progression. The AIDS Reader 1998; 164-72.

25. Kinloch-de Loes S, de Saussure P, Saurat JH et al. Symptomatic primary infection due to human immunodeficiency virus type 1: Review of 31 cases. Clin Infect Dis 1993; 17: 59-65.

26. Rabeneck L, Popovic M, Gartner S, et al. Acute HIV infection presenting with painful swallowing and esophageal ulcers. JAMA 1990; 263: 2318-2322.

27. Fusade T, Liony C, Joly P et al. Ulcerative esophagitis during primary HIV infection. Am J Gastroenterol 1992; 87: 1523-24.

28. Kaufmann GR, Cunningham P, Kelleher AD et al. Patterns of viral dynamics during primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Infect Dis 1998; 178: 1812-15.

29. Lee TH, Sheppard HW, Reis M et al. Circulating HIV-1-infected cell burden from seroconversion to AIDS: Importance of postseroconversion viral load on disease course. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1994; 7: 381-388.

30. Vlahov D, Graham N, Hoover D et al. Prognostic indicators for AIDS and infectious disease death in HIV-infected injection drug users: Plasma viral load and CD4+ cell count. JAMA 1998; 279: 35-40.

31. Mellors JW, Munoz A, Giorgi JV, et al. Plasma viral load and CD4+ lymphocytes as prognostic markers of HIV-1 infection. Ann Intern Med 1997; 126: 946-954.

32. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-infected adults and adolescents. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1998; 47(RR-5) (Revised 5/99).

33. Isaksson B, Albert J, Chiodi F et al. AIDS two months after primary human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis 1988; 158: 866-68.

34. Husak R, von Briesen H, Dietrich U et al. Rapidly progressive infection and Kaposi´s sarcoma in patient with a novel syncytium-inducing HIV-B variant. Lancet 1996; 348: 1107-8.

35. Holland DJ, Dwyer DE, Saksena NK et al. Dementia and pancytopenia in a patient who died of AIDS within one year of primary human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 22: 1121-22.

36. Michael NL, Brown AE, Voigt RF, et al. Rapid disease progression without seroconversion following primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection - Evidence for highly susceptible human hosts. J Infect Dis 1997; 175: 1252-59.

37. Robinson NJ. Rapid progression to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 disease. J Infect Dis 1996; 173: 1526.

38. Rosenberg ES, Billingsley JM, Caliendo AM et al. Vigorous HIV-1-specific CD4+ T cell responses associated with control of viremia. Science 1997; 278: 1447-50.

39. Perelson AS, Neumann AU, Markowitz M, et al. HIV-1 dynamics in vivo: Virion clearance rate, infected cell life-span, and viral generation time. Nature 1996; 271: 1582-86.

40. Finzi D, Blankson J, Siliciano JD, et al. Latent infection of CD4+ T cells provides a mechanism for lifelong persistence of HIV-1, even in patients on effective combination therapy. Nat Med 1999 5: 512-7.

41. Rosenberg ES, Caliendo AM, Walker BD. Acute HIV infection among patients tested for mononucleosis. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 969.

42. Rich JD, Merriman NA, Mylonakis E et al. Misdiagnosis of HIV infection by HIV-1 plasma viral load testing: A case series. Ann Intern Med 1999; 130: 37-39.

43. Detels R, Munoz A, McFarlane G, et al. Effectiveness of potent antiretroviral therapy on time to AIDS and death in men with known HIV infection duration. JAMA 1998; 280: 1497-1503.

44. Michaels SH, Clark R, Kissinger P. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 405-6.

45. Palella FJ, Delaney KM, Moorman AC et al. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 853-60.

46. U.S. Public Health Service and Infectious Diseases Society of America. 1999 USPHS/IDSA guidelines for the prevention of opportunistic infections in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1999; 48: (RR-10).

47. Li TS, Tubiana R, Katlama C, et al. Long-lasting recovery in CD4 T-cell function and viral-load reduction after highly active antiretroviral therapy in advanced HIV-1 disease. Lancet 1998; 351: 1682-6.

48. Furrer H, Malinverni R. Systemic inflammatory reaction after starting highly active antiretroviral therapy in AIDS patients treated for extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Am J Med 1999 106: 371-2.

49. Rinaldo Jr CR, Liebmann JM, Huang XL, et al. Prolonged suppression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) viremia in persons with advanced disease results in enhancement of CD4 T cell reactivity to microbial antigens but not to HIV-1 antigens. J Infect Dis 1999 179: 329-36.

50. Karavellas MP, Plummer DJ, Macdonald JC, et al. Incidence of immune recovery vitritis in cytomegalovirus retinitis patients following institution of successful highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis 1999; 179: 697-700.

51. Perry RC, Cushing HE, Deeg MA et al. Ritonavir, triglycerides, and pancreatitis. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 28: 161-62.

52. Henry K, Melroe H, Huebesch J et al. Atorvastatin and gemfibrizol for protease-inhibitor-related lipid abnormalities. Lancet 1998; 352: 1031-32.

53. Martinez E, Gatell J. Metabolic abnormalities and use of HIV-1 protease inhibitors. Lancet 1998; 352: 821-22.

54. Visnegarwala F, Krause KL, Musher DM. Severe diabetes associated with protease inhibitor therapy. Ann Intern Med 1997; 127: 947.

55. Eastone JA, Decker CF. New-onset diabetes mellitus associated with use of protease inhibitor. Ann Intern Med 1997; 127: 948.

56. Carr A, Samaras K, Chisholm DJ et al. Pathogenesis of HIV-1-protease inhibitor-associated peripheral lipodystrophy, hyperlipidaemia, and insulin resistance. Lancet 1998; 351: 1881-83.

57. Lo JC, Mulligan K, Tai VW et al. “Buffalo hump” in men with HIV-1 infection. Lancet 1998; 3512: 867-70.

58. Carr A, Cooper DA. Lipodystrophy associated with an HIV-protease inhibitor. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 1296.

59. Ponce-de-Leon S, Iglesias M, Ceballos J et al. Liposuction for protease inhibitor-associated lipodystrophy. Lancet 1999; 353: 1244-45.

60. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Casecontrol study of HIV seroconversion in healthcare workers after percutaneous exposure to HIVinfected blood — France, United Kingdom, and United States, January 1988 - August 1994. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1995; 44: 929-33.

61. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Public Health Service guidelines for the management of health-care worker exposures to HIV and recommendations for postexposure prophylaxis. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1998; 47(RR-7): 1-33.

62. Li RW, Wong JB. Postexposure treatment of HIV. N Eng J Med 1997; 337: 499-500.

63. Pinkerton SD, Holtgrave DR, Blom FR. Postexposure treatment of HIV. N Eng J Med 1997; 337: 500-1.

64. Lurie P, Miller S, Hecht F et al. Postexposure prophylaxis after nonoccupational HIV exposure: Clinical, ethical, and policy considerations. JAMA 1998; 280: 1769-73.

65. Vanchieri C. Is HIV prophylaxis effective for sexual exposures? Ann Int Med 1998; 128: 513-14.

66. Katz MH, Gerberding JL. Postexposure treatment of people exposed to the human immunodeficiency virus through sexual contact or injectiondrug use. N Eng J Med 1997; 336: 1097-1100.

67. Steger KA, Swotinsky R, Snyder S, et al. Recent experience with post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) with combination antiretrovirals for occupational exposure to HIV. 35th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, September 13-16, 1997, San Francisco; abstract 480.

68. Wang SA and the HIV PEP Registry Group, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) following occupational HIV exposure: Findings from the HIV PEP registry. 35th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, September 13-16, 1997, San Francisco; abstract 482.

69. Cardo D, Campbell S, Srivastava P, et al. Postexposure prophylaxis after occupational HIV exposures. 35th Annual Meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, September 13-16, 1997, San Francisco; abstract 483.

70. Bamberger JD, Waldo CR, Gerberding JL et al. Postexposure prophylaxis for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection following sexual assault. Am J Med 1999; 106: 323-326.