Asensio E, Narváez R, Dorantes J, Oseguera J, Orea TA, Hernández RP, Rebollar GV, Mont L, Brugada J

Idioma: Español
Referencias bibliográficas: 146
Paginas: 89-98
Archivo PDF: 122.76 Kb.

RESUMEN

La muerte súbita se define como aquella que ocurre antes de una hora de la aparición de los síntomas. Es una condición grave que en diversos países supone un problema de salud pública y que en México implica entre 33 y 53 mil muertes anuales, en su mayoría ligadas a enfermedad isquémica del corazón. La causa primordial de la muerte súbita son las arritmias ventriculares graves, sin embargo determinar qué sujetos son susceptibles de tener un episodio arrítmico es complejo y por ello la relación costo-efectividad de las medidas de estratificación de riesgo suele ser mala. En el presente trabajo se revisan las diferentes estrategias para determinar el riesgo de muerte súbita. Las estrategias para el tratamiento oportuno de la muerte súbita relativas a la población general utilizadas en diversos países tienen impactos variables en la supervivencia, sin embargo, en las poblaciones seleccionadas con alto riesgo de padecer un evento arrítmico ventricular, la mejor terapia disponible actualmente es el desfibrilador automático implantable, aunque en el trabajo se discuten otras opciones de tratamiento. En nuestro país es necesario hacer un importante esfuerzo de detección prevención y tratamiento oportuno para limitar las consecuencia de este problema.

REFERENCIAS (EN ESTE ARTÍCULO)

1. Myerburg R, Castellanos A. Cardiac arrest and sudden cardiac death. En Braunwald E. ed. Heart disease: A textbook of cardiovascular medicine 4° ed. Philadelphia, Saunders Co.1992:756-89.

2. 2. Mont L. Muerte súbita. Conferencia magistral, V curso de Cardiología para Médicos Internistas: Una visión dual. Septiembre 20 al 22, 2001, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición «Salvador Zubirán».

3. 3. Schatzkin A. Cupples L, Heeren T. Sudden death in the Framingham Heart Study: Differences in the incidence and risk factors by sex and coronary disease status. Am J Epidemiol 1984;46:341.

4. 4. DEFIBRILAT Study group. Actuarial risk of sudden death while awaiting cardiac transplantation in patients with atherosclerotic heart disease. Am J Cardiol 1991;68:545-6.

5. 5. Nagele H, Rodiger W. Sudden death and tailored medical therapy in elective candidates for heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 1999;18(9):869-76.

6. 6. Deedwania P. Ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death in Heart Failure: Evaluation and management. 20th annual scientific sessions of the NASPE, Mayo 14 1999, http://www.medscape.com/medscape/cho/1999/NASPE/story.cfm?story_id-585

7. 7. Demirovic J. Risk factors in the incidence of sudden cardiac death and possibilities for its prevention. University of Belgrade Press, thesis 1985.

8. 8. Deshpande S, Akhtar M. Muerte súbita cardiaca: La magnitud del problema. En Dunbar S, Ellenbogen K, Epstein A (eds.) Muerte súbita cardiaca, pasado presente y futuro. Medical trends (España) 1998, Futura Publishing co. 1997;pp 1-18.

9. 9. Principales causas de mortalidad general, Estados Unidos Mexicanos 1999. Estadísticas vitales, capítulo de mortalidad: http://www.ssa.org.mx/ 11 de Nov 2001.

10. De Micheli A. El problema de la muerte súbita cardiaca. Parte I. Arch Inst cardiol ex 1999;69(4):367-70.

11. Iturralde P. El problema de la muerte súbita cardiaca. Parte II Enfoque actual del problema. Arch Inst Cardiol Mex 1999;69(4):371-4.

12. Zghaib A, Férez S. Isquemia asintomática y muerte súbita. Arch Inst Cardiol Mex, 1992;62(6):487-9.

13. Furukawa T, Rozanski J, Nogami A, Moroe K, Gosselin A, Lister J. Time dependent risk of and predictors for cardiac arrest recurrence in survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest with chronic coronary artery disease. Circulation 1989;80:599-608.

14. Elosúa R, Guindo J, Viñolas X, Martínez Rubio A, Bayés Genis T, Bayés de Luna A. Clinical goals of risk stratification. En Malik M. (Ed) Risk of arrhythmia and sudden death. BMJ Books 2001, pp 3-10.

15. Mont L. Muerte súbita cardiaca: Causas y prevención. Medicine, En prensa.

16. Araya V, González A, Casanova J, Colín L, Kershenovich S, Iturralde P. Identificación de los pacientes con riesgo de arritmias malignas en el primer año postinfarto de miocardio. Arch Inst Cardiol Mex 1994;64(2):145-59.

17. De Vreede-Swagemakers J, Gorgels A, Dubois W. Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest in the 1990’s: A population based study in the Maastricht area on incidence, characteristics and survival. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997;30:1500-8.

18. Bayés de Luna A, Coumel P, Leclerq J. Ambulatory sudden cardiac death: Mechanisms of production of fatal arrhythmia on the basis of data from 157 cases. Am Heart J, 1989;117:151-9.

19. International Consensus. American Heart Association, International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation: Guidelines 2000 for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. The automated external defibrillator: Key link in the chain of survival. Circulation Suppl, 2000; 102(8):I60-I76.

20. Marenco J, Wang P, Link M, Homoud M, Estes N. Improving survival from sudden cardiac arrest: the role of the automated external defibrillator. JAMA 2001;285(9):1193-200.

21. Kern K. Public access defibrillation: A review. Heart 1998;80(4)402-4.

22. Haerem J. Mural platelet microthrombi and major acute lesions of main epicardial arteries in sudden coronary death. Atherosclerosis, 1974;19:529-41.

23. Reichenbach D, Moss A, Meyer E. Pathology of the heart in sudden cardiac death. Am J Cardiol 1977;39:865-72.

24. Farb A, Burke A, Tang A, Liang T, Mannan P, Smialek J, et al. Coronary plaque erosion without rupture into a lipid core. A frequent cause of coronary thrombosis in sudden coronary death. Circulation 1996 Apr 1;93(7):1354-63.

25. Barron H, Lesh M. Autonomic nervous system and sudden cardiac death. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996 Apr;27(5):1053-60.

26. Schwartz P, Zipes D. Autonomic modulation of cardiac arrhythmias. En: Zipes D, Jalife J. Cardiac electrophysiology, from cell to bedside. 3a edición, 2000, Saunders Pub. Co. pp:300-14.

27. Schwartz P, La Rovere, M Vanoli E. Autonomic nervous system and sudden cardiac death. Experimental basis and clinical observations for post-myocardial infarction risk stratification. Circulation 1992;85(supl. I):I-177-91.

28. Gettes L. Electrolyte abnormalities underlying lethal ventricular arrhythmias. Circ 1992;85(suppl.I):I70-I76.

29. Multiple risk factor intervention trial research group. Multiple-risk factor intervention trial: Risk factor changes in mortality results. J Am Med Assoc 1982;248:1465-77.

30. Zipes D, Wellens H. Sudden cardiac death. Circulation 1998 Nov 24;98(21):2334-51.

31. Calkins H, Maughan W, Weissman H, Sugiura S, Sagawa K, Levine J. Effect of acute volume load on refractoriness and arrhythmia development in isolated chronically isolated canine hearts. Circulation 1989;79:687-97.

32. Slade A, Camm J. Risk Assessment and Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Arch Mal Coeur et Vaiss 89 Spec No 1:37-49, 1996 Feb.

33. Almendral J, Villacastin J, Arenal A, Tercedor L, Merino J, Delcan J. Evidence favoring the hypothesis that ventricular arrhythmias have prognostic significance in left ventricular hypertrophy secondary to systemic hypertension. Am J Cardiol 1995 Nov 2;76(13):60D-63D.

34. Chang AC, McAreavey D, Fananapazir L. Identification of Patients With Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy at High Risk for Sudden Death. Current Opinion in Cardiology 1995 Jan 10(1):9-15.

35. Varnava A, Elliott P, Baboonian C, Davison F, Davies M, McKenna W. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Hystopathological features of sudden death in cardiac troponin T disease. Circulation 2001;104:1380-84.

36. Cannan C, Reeder G, Bailey K. Natural history of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation 1995;92:2488-95.

37. Fananapanazir L, Chang L, Leon M. Electrophysiologic abnormalities in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: A consecutive analysis in 155 patients. Circulation 1989;80:1259-68.

38. Saumarez R, Camm J, Panagos A. Ventricular fibrillation in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is associated with increased fractionation of paced right ventricular electrograms. Circulation 1992;86:467-74.

39. Fuster V, Gersh B, Giuliani E. The natural history of idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 1981;47:525-31.

40. Tamburro P, Wilber P. Sudden death in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am Heart J 1992;124:1035-45.

41. Guadalajara F, González S, Fernández B. Muerte súbita en insuficiencia cardiaca. Arch Inst Cardiol Mex 1999;69:80-88.

42. Kao W, Costanzo M. Sudden death in heart failure patients: effects of optimized medical therapy. J Heart Lung Transplant 2000 Aug;19(8 Suppl):S32-7.

43. O’Conor C, Gattis W, Shaw L, Cuffe M, Califf R. Clinical characteristics and long term outcomes of patients with heart failure and preserved systolic function. Am J Cardiol 2000;86:863-7.

44. Young J. Sudden cardiac death syndrome and pump dysfunction: the link. Heart Lung Transplant 2000 Aug;19(8 Suppl):S27-31.

45. Doval H, Null D, Grancelli H, Varini S, Soifer S, Corrado G et al. Non-sustained ventricular tachycardia in severe heart failure. Independent marker of increased mortality due to sudden death. Circulation 1996;94:3198-203.

46. Fitzsimmons P, McWhirter P, Peterson D, Kruyer W. The natural history of Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome in 228 military aviators: A long term follow-up of 22 years. Am Heart J 2001:142:530-6.

47. Beckman K, Gallastegui J, Bauman J. The predictive value of electrophysiologic studies in untreated patients with Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol 1990;15:640-7.

48. Myerburg R. Sudden cardiac death in persons with normal (or near normal) hearts. Am J Cardiol 1997;79(6A):6-9.

49. Rajamani S, Anderson C, Anson B, January C. Pharmacological rescue of Human K channel Long QT mutations. Circulation 2002;105:2830-5.

50. Shimizu W, Antzelevitch C. Differential effects of Beta-adrenergic agonists and antagonists in LQT1, LQT2 and LQT3 models of the long QT syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000;35:778-86.

51. Lupoglazoff J, Denjoy I, Berther M, Neyroud N, Demay I, Richard P et al. Notched T waves on holter recordings enhance detection of patients with LQT2 (HERG) mutations. Circulation 2001;103:1095-101.

52. Brugada J, Mont L, Brugada R. Displasia arritmogénica del ventrículo derecho. Rev Esp cardiol 1997;50: 541-7.

53. Corrado D, Basso C, Thiene G. Sudden death. En: Nava A, Rossi A, Thiene G: Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia. Elsevier Science 1997, 1a. ed. Pp 36-45.

54. Asensio E, Alvarez B, Lozano E, Farías A, Brugada R, Brugada P et al. Elevación del ST, bloqueo de rama derecha y muerte súbita: síndrome de Brugada. Arch Inst Card Mex 2000;70;301-311.

55. Brugada J, Brugada R, Antzelevitch C, Towbin J, Nademanee K, Brugada P. Long term follow-up of individuals with the electrocardiographic pattern of right bundle Branch block and St segment elevation in precordial leads V1 to V3. Circulation 2002;105:73-78.

56. Church T. Risk assessment and risk stratification in sudden cardiac death: A biostatistician’s view. Pacing Clin Electrophisiol 1997;20(19 pt2):2520-2532.

57. Rodríguez F, Viñolas X. Muerte súbita (III): causas de muerte súbita. Problemas a la hora de establecer y clasificar los tipos de muerte. Rev Esp Cardiol 1999;52(11):1004-14.

58. Klein H, Auricchio A Reek S, Geller C. New primary prevention trials of sudden cardiac death in patients with left ventricular dysfunction: SCD-HEFT and MADIT-II. Am J Cardiol 1999;83(5B):91D-97D.

59. Madsen B, Rasmussen V, Hansen J. Predictors of sudden death and death from heart failure in patients with heart insufficiency are different. Ugeskr Laeger 1999;161(1):34-9 Resumen medline.

60. Carmona J, Basterra N. Prevención de muerte súbita en pacientes en espera de trasplante cardiaco. Rev Esp Cardiol 2000;53(5):736-45.

61. Herlitz J, Brandrup G, Karlsson T, Karlson B, Haglid M, Sjoland H. Predictors of death and other cardiac events within 2 years after coronary artery bypass grafting. Cardiology 1998;90(2)110-4.

62. Green M, Ricci J, Wolfe K. The appropriate evaluation of the patient at risk for sudden death from ventricular arrhythmias. Can J Cardiol 2000;16 suppl C:13C-15C.

63. Goldberger J. Treatment and prevention of sudden cardiac death: effect of recent clinical trials. Arch Intern Med 1999;159(12)1281-7.

64. Giorberidze I, Saksena S, Krol R, Munsif A, Koletis T, Mathew P, et al. Risk stratification and clinical outcome of minimally symptomatic and asymptomatic patients with non-sustained ventricular tachycardia and coronary disease. A prospective single center study. Am J Cardiol 1997;80(5B):3F-9F.

65. The CAST investigators: Preliminary report: Effect of encainide and flecainide on mortality in a randomized trial of arrhythmia suppression after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1989;321:406-12.

66. Myerburg R, Interian A, Mitrani R, Kessler K, Castellanos A. Frequency of sudden cardiac death and profiles of risk. Am J Cardiol 1997;80(5B)10F-19F.

67. Leier C, Alvarez R, Binkley J. The problem of ventricular dysrhythmias and sudden death mortality in heart failure: The impact of current therapy. Cardiology 2000;93(1-2):56-69.

68. Klingenheben T, Credner S, Gronefeld G, Zabel M, Li Y et al. Cardiac autonomic tone in risk stratification after myocardial infarct: Results of a prospective long term study of 411 consecutive patients. Z Kardiol 1999;88(6):400-9 8 (Resumen Medline).

69. Swartzch P. The autonomic nervous system and sudden death. Eur Heart J 1998;19 suppl F: F72-80.

70. Dries D, Dormanski M, Waclawiw M, Gersh B. Effect of antithrombotic therapy on risk of sudden coronary death in patients with congestive heart failure. Am J Cardiol 1997;79(7):909-13.

71. Madsen B, Rasmussen V, Hensen J. Predictors of sudden death from pump failure in congestive heart failure are different. Analysis of 24 hr holter monitoring, clinical variables, blood chemistry, exercise test and radionuclide angiography. Int J cardiol. 1997;58(2):151-62.

72. Nakata T, Miyamoto K, Doi A, Sasao H, Wakabayashi T, Kobayashi H et al. Cardiac death prediction and impaired cardiac sympathetic innervation assessed by MIBG in patients with failing and non- failing hearts. J Nucl Cardiol 1998;5(6):579-90.

73. Kubler W. ACE inhibitors in heart failure: Effect on mode of death. Eur Heart J 1997;18(1):3-4.

74. Windhagen B, Kadish A, Feinberg A. Application of noninvasive and invasive tests for risk assessment in patients with ventricular arrhythmias. Cardiol Clin 2000;18(2):243-63.

75. Abildstrom S, Torp-Pedersen C, Kober L. Left ventricular ejection fraction and wall motion score. En: Malik M: Risk of arrhythmia and sudden death. BMJ Books, 1a edición, 2001, pp:57-64.

76. Kelly M, Thompson P, Quinlan M. Prognostic significance of left ventricular ejection fraction after acute myocardial infarction: A bedside radionuclide study. Br Heart J 1985;53:16-24.

77. Ong L, Green S, Reiser P, Morrison J. Early prediction of mortality in patients with acute myocardial infarction: A prospective study of clinical and radionuclide risk factors. Am J Cardiol 1986;57:33-8.

78. Kan G, Visser C, Koolen J, Dunning A. Short and long term predictive value of admission wall motion score in acute myocardial infarction. A cross sectional echocardiographic study of 345 patients. Br Heart J 1986;56:422-7.

79. Bigger J, Fleiss J, Kleiger R, Miller J, Rolnitzky L. The relationship among ventricular arrhythmias, left ventricular dysfunction and mortality in the two years after myocardial infarction. Circulation 1984;53:774-80.

80. Pedretti R, Etro M, Laporta A, Braga S, Caru B. Prediction of late arrhythmic events after acute myocardial infarction from combined use of non-invasive prognostic variables and inducibility of sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardia. Am J Cardiol 1993;71:1131-41.

81. de Teresa E, Alzueta J, Jiménez M. Profiling risk from arrhythmic or hemodynamic death. Am J Cardiol 2000;86(suppl):126K-132K.

82. Szabo B, van Veldhuisen D, van der Veer N, Brouwer J, de Graeff P, Crijns H. Prognostic value of heart rate variability in chronic congestive heart failure secondary to idiopathic or ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 1997;97:978-980.

83. Cusack M, Redwood S. Exercise electrocardiography for the assessment of arrhythmias. En Malik M: Risk of arrhythmia and sudden death. BMJ Books, 1a edición, 2001, pp:144-54.

84. Mont L, Seixas T, Brugada P. Clinical and electrophysiologic characteristics of exercise-related idiopathic ventricular tachycardia. Am J Cardiol 1991;68:897-900.

85. Kleiger R, Stein P. Heart rate variability. En Malik M: Risk of arrhythmia and sudden death. BMJ Books, 1a edición, 2001, pp:221-233.

86. Task force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society Pacing and Electrophysiology. Heart rate variability. Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation and clinical use. Circulation 1996;93:1043-65.

87. Fauchier L, Babuty D, Cosnay P, Fauchier J. Prognostic value of heart rate variability for sudden death and major arrhythmic events in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999;33(5):1203-7.

88. Galinier M, Pathak A, Fourcade J, Androdias C, Curnier D, Varnous S, et al. Depressed low frequency power of heart rate variability as an independent predictor of sudden death in chronic heart failure. Eur Heart J 2000;21(6):475-82.

89. Shusterman V, Aysin B, Weiss R, Brode S, Gottipaty V, Schwartzman D et al. Dynamics of low frequency RR interval oscillations preceding spontaneous ventricular tachycardia. Am Heart J 2000;139(1):126-33.

90. Molgaard H, Hermansen K, Bjerregaard P. Spectral components of short term RR interval variability in healthy subjects and effects of risk factors. Eur Heart J 1994;9:1174-83.

91. Odemuyiwa O, Poloniecki J, Malik M. Temporal influences on the prediction of postinfarction mortality by heart rate variability: A comparison with the left ventricular ejection fraction. Br Heart J 1994;71:521-7.

92. Klingenheben T, Credner S, Gronefeld G, Zabel M, Li Y, Honhloser S. Cardiac autonomic tone in risk stratification after myocardial infarct: Results of a prospective, long term study of 411 consecutive patients. Z Kardiol 1999;88(6):400-9 (Resumen Medline).

93. Kulakowski P. Ventricular signal averaged electrocardiography. En Malik M: Risk of arrhythmia and sudden death. BMJ Books, 1a edición, 2001, pp:167-79.

94. Breithardt G, Becker R, Seipel L, Abendroth , Ostermeyer J. Non-invasive detection of late potentials in man – A new marker for ventricular tachycardia. Eur Heart J 1981;2:1-11.

95. Breithardt G, Cain M, El Sheriff N and the Task force commitee between the European Society of Cardiology, the American Heart Association and the American College of Cardiology. Standards for analysis of ventricular late potentials using high resolution or signal averaged electrocardiography. Eur Heart J 1991;12:473-80.

96. Day C, McComb L, Campbell R. QT dispersion: An indication of arrhythmia risk in patients with long QT intervals. Br Heart J 1990;63:342-4.

97. Rautaharju P. QT and dispersion of ventricular repolarization: The greatest fallacy in electrocardiography in the 1990s. Circulation 1999;18:2477-8.

98. Brendorp B, Elming H, Jun L, Kober L, Malik M, Jensen G et al. QT dispersion has no prognostic information for patients with advanced congestive heart failure and reduced left ventricular systolic function. Circulation 2001;103:831-5.

99. Maron B, Leyhe M, Casey S, Gohman T, Lawler C, Crow R, et al. Assessment of QT dispersion as a prognostic marker for sudden death in a regional non-referred hypertrophic cardiomyopathy cohort. Am J Cardiol 2001;87(1):114-5.

100. Yi G, Poloniecki J, Dickie S, Elliott P, Malik M, McKenna W. Can the assessment of dynamic QT dispersion on exercise electrocardiogram predict sudden cardiac death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy? Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2000;23(11 pt 2):1953-6.

101. Brooksby P, Batin P, Nolan J, Lindsay S, Andrews R, Mullen M et al. The relationship between QT intervals and mortality in ambulant patients with chronic heart failure. The United Kingdom heart failure evaluation and assessment of risk trial (UK HEART). Eur Heart J 1999;20(18):1335-41.

102. Rosenbaum D, Jackson L, Smith J, Garan H, Ruskin J, Cohen R. Electrical alternans and vulnerability to ventricular arrhythmias. N Engl J Med 1994;330:235-41.

103. Klingenheben T, Siedow A, Credner S, Gronefeld G, Zabel M, Yi Y et al. T wave alternans in microwave frequency as a new indicator of disordered ventricular repolarization: Pathophysiology, methodology, clinical results. Z Kardiol 1999;88(12):974-81 (Resumen Medline).

104. Gold M, Bloomfield D, Anderson K, El-Sherif N, Wilber D, Groh W et al. A comparison of T wave alternans, signal averaged electrocardiography and programmed ventricular stimulation for arrhythmia risk stratification. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000;36(7):2247-53.

105. Bloomfield D, Cohen R. Repolarization alternans. En Malik M: Risk of arrhythmia and sudden death. BMJ Books, 1st edition, 2001, pp: 256-65.

106. Ikeda T, Sakata T, Mitsuaki T, Kondo N, Tezuka N, Nakae T et al. Combined assessment of T wave alternans and late potentials to predict arrhythmic events after myocardial infarction. A prospective study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000;35(2):722-30.

107. Verrier R, Nearing B. Electrophysiologic basis for T wave alternans as an index of vulnerability to ventricular fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1994;5(5):445-61.

108. Rosembaum D, Albrecht P, Cohen R. Predicting sudden cardiac death from T wave alternans of the surface electrocardiogram: Promises and pitfalls. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1996;7:1095-1111.

109. Verrier R, Stone P. Exercise stress testing for T wave alternans to expose latent electrical instability. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1997;8:994-7.

110. Bachtvarov P. Electrophysiological study for risk stratification of cardiac patients. En Malik M: Risk of arrhythmia and sudden death. BMJ Books, 1a edición, 2001, pp:98-116.

111. Weaver W, Cobb L, Hallstrom A. Ambulatory arrhythmias in resuscitated victims of cardiac arrest. Circulation 1982;66:212-8.

112. Kim M, Bruckman D, Kirsh M, Kou W. Outcome of men with ischemic cardiomyopathy, asymptomatic non-sustained ventricular tachycardia and negative electrophysiologic study. Am J Cardiol 2000;85:119-21.

113. Wilber D, Garan H, Finkelstein D. Out-of hospital cardiac arrest, Use of electrophysiologic testing in the prediction of long term outcome. N Engl J Med 1988;318:19-24.

114. Multicenter Postinfarction Research Group. Risk stratification and survival after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1983;309:331-6.

115. Moss A, Hall W, Cannom D for the Multicenter Automatic Defibrillator Trial (MADIT). Improved survival with an implanted defibrillator in patients with coronary disease in high risk for ventricular arrhythmia. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1933-40.

116. Elliott P, Sharma S, Varnava A, Poloniecki J, Rowland E McKenna W. Survival after cardiac arrest or sustained ventricular tachycardia in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999;33:1596-601.

117. Milner P, DiMarco J, Lerman B. Electrophysiological evaluation of sustained ventricular tachyarrhythmias in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 1988;11:562-8.

118. Turrito G, Ahuja R, Caref E, El-Sherif N. Risk stratification for arrhythmic events in patients with non-ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy and non-sustained ventricular tachycardia: Role of programmed ventricular stimulation and the signal averaged electrocardiogram. J Am Coll Cardiol 1994;24:1523-8.

119. Brugada J, Brugada P, Brugada R. The syndrome of right bundle branch block, ST segment elevation in V1 to V3 and sudden cardiac death – The Brugada Syndrome. Europace 1999;1:156-66.

120. Pinamonti B, Siinagra G, Camerini F. Clinical relevance of right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. Heart 2000;83:9-11.

121. Surawicz B. Long QT. Good, bad indifferent and fascinating. ACC Current J Rev 1999;4:255-6.

122. Camm J, Julian D, Janse G. The European Myocardial Infarct Amiodarone Trial (EMIAT). Am J Cardiol 1993;72:95F-98F.

123. Epstein A, Bigger T, Wyse G, Romhilt W, Reynolds A, Hallstrom P. Events in the Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST): Mortality in the entire population enrolled. J Am Coll Cardiol 1991;18:14-9.

124. Benditt D, Benson D, Klein G, Pritzker M, Kriett J, Anderson R. Prevention of recurrent sudden cardiac death: Role of provocative electropharmacologic testing. J Am Coll Cardiol 1983;2:418-25.

125. Mitchell L, Sheldon R, Gillis A. Definition of predicted effective antiarrhythmic drug therapy for ventricular tachyarrhythmias by the electrophysiologic study approach: Randomized comparison of patient response criteria. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997;72:280-7.

126. Buxton E, Fisher D, Josephson M, for the Multicenter Unsustained Tachycardia Trial (MUSTT). Prevention of sudden death in patients with coronary artery disease: The Multicenter Unsustained Tachycardia Trial (MUSTT). Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1993;36:215-26.

127. Saeed M, Homoud M, Wang P, Estes M, Link M. Role of electrophysiologic testing in risk stratification for sudden cardiac death. J Invasive Cardiol 2001;13(11):758-62.

128. Olshansky B, Hartz V, Hahn E, Mason J, Weaver D and the ESVEM investigators. Location of death (in-hospital or out-of-hospital) and type of death (arrhythmic, non-arrhythmic, non-cardiac) after inducible sustained ventricular tachycardia or non-fatal cardiac arrest (the ESVEM trial). Am J Cardiol 2000;86:846-51.

129. Balady G, Chaitman B, Foster C, Froelicher E, Gordon N, Van Camp S. Automated external defibrillators in health/fitness facilities. Circulation 2002;105:1147-50.

130. Moser M. Beta blockers in the management of cardiovascular disease. http://www.medscape.com/Medscape/cardiology/Treatment Update/2000/tu01/public/toc-tu01.html

131. Goldberger J. Treatment and prevention of sudden cardiac death. Effect of recent clinical trials. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:1281-7.

132. Leclerq C, Cazeau S, Ritter P, Alonso C, Gras D, Mabo P et al. A pilot experience with permanent biventricular pacing to treat advanced heart failure. Am Heart J 2000;140(6):862-70.

133. Cohen T, Klein J. cardiac resynchronization therapy for treatment of chronic heart failure. J Invasive Cardiol 2002;14(1):48-53.

134. Kay N, Bourge R. Biventricular pacing for congestive heart failure: Questions of who, what, where, why, how, and how much. Am Heart J 2000;140(6):821-3.

135. Kerwin W, Botvinick E, O’Connell W, Merrick S, DeMarco T, Chatterjee K et al. Ventricular contraction abnormalities in dilated cardiomyopathy: Effect of biventricular pacing to correct intraventricular dyssynchrony. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000;35(5):1221-7.

136. Moss A. Bakground, Outcome and clinical implications of the Multicenter Automatic Defibrillator Implantation Trial (MADIT). Am J Cardiol 1997;80(5B):28F-32F.

137. Gold R. Primary prevention of sudden cardiac death with implantable cardioverter defibrillators: Lessons learned from MADIT and MUSTT. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2000;23(11):1981-5.

138. The AVID investigators. A comparison of antiarrhythmic drug therapy with implantable defibrillators in patients resuscitated from near-fatal ventricular arrhythmias. N Engl J Med 1997;337:1576-83.

139. Steinberg J, Mattins J, Sadanandan S, Goldner B, Menchavez E, Domanski M et al. Antiarrhythmic drug use in the implantable defibrillator arm of the Antiarrhythmic Vs Implantable Defibrillators (AVID) study. Am Heart J 2001:142:520-9.

140. Sheldon R, Connolly S, Krahn A, Roberts R, Gent M, Gardner M et al. Identification of patients most likely to benefit from implantable cardioverter-defibrillator therapy. The Canadian Implantable Defibrillator Study (CIDS). Circulation 2000;101:1660-4.

141. Brugada P, Brugada R, Brugada J. Sudden death in high risk family members: Brugada Syndrome. Am J Cardiol 2000;86(9A):40K-43K.

142. Brugada P, Brugada R, Brugada J, Geelen P. Use of the prophylactic implantable cardioverter-defibrillator for patients with normal hearts. Am Heart J 1999;83(5B):98D-100D.

143. Cannom D. Matching cardiac rhythm management technology to patient needs: Pacing, ablation, implantable cardioverter-defibrillators. Am J Cardiol 2000;86(9A):58K-70K.

144. Fletcher R, Karasik P. Radiofrequency catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in patients with coronary artery disease. En: Singer I, Barold S, Camm J. Non-pharmacological therapy of arrhythmias for the 21st century. Futura Pub.Co. 1998 1a ed. pp:253-290.

145. Miles W, Olgin J. Ablation of idiopathic left ventricular tachycardia and right ventricular outflow tract tachycardia. En Singer I, Barold S, Camm J. Non-pharmacological therapy of arrhythmias for the 21st century. Futura Pub.Co. 1998 1a ed. pp:233-252.

146. Credner S, Klingenheben T, Mauss O, Sticherling C, Honhloser S. Electrical storm in patients with transvenous implantable cardioverter-defibrillators. Incidence, management and prognostic implications. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998;32:1909-15.