Tamariz DEH

Idioma: Español
Referencias bibliográficas: 132
Paginas: 6-16
Archivo PDF: 539.84 Kb.

RESUMEN

La formación de redes neuronales se da principalmente durante el desarrollo embrionario, en esta etapa los axones en crecimiento siguen numerosas señales que los guían hasta llegar a su blanco o sitio de inervación. Estas señales guía son de diversos tipos y su expresión es modulada de manera que en el adulto pueden desaparecer o expresarse en sitios diferentes en comparación con el tejido embrionario. Durante el proceso de regeneración del sistema nervioso en adultos también existe una fina regulación de la expresión de señales guía, influyendo de manera positiva o negativa en la adecuada regeneración del tejido dañado. En la presente revisión se abordan los diferentes tipos de señales guía y su papel durante el desarrollo embrionario, resaltando la importancia de conocer su función durante el establecimiento de las redes neuronales, para comprender su posible papel durante la reparación del sistema nervioso, y su utilidad para mejorar los procesos de regeneración; particularmente en terapias de sustitución neuronal o en el desarrollo de biomateriales para aplicaciones biomédicas.

REFERENCIAS (EN ESTE ARTÍCULO)

1. Yamada KM, Wessells NK. Axon elongation. Effect of nerve growth factor on microtubule protein. Exp Cell Res 1971; 66:346-52.

2. Ramón y Cajal S. Sobre la aparición de las expansiones celulares en la médula embrionaria. Gaceta Sanitaria de Barcelona 1890; 413-9.

3. Suter DM, Forscher P. Substrate-cytoskeletal coupling as a mechanism for the regulation of growth cone motility and guidance. J Neurobiol 2000; 44:97-113.

4. Goldberg DJ, Burmeister DW. Stages in axon formation: observations of growth of Aplysia axons in culture using video-enhanced contrastdifferential interference contrast microscopy. J Cell Biol 1986; 103:1921-31.

5. Hall A, Lalli G. Rho and Ras GTPases in axon growth, guidance, and branching. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2010; 2:a001818.

6. Wen Z, Zheng JQ. Directional guidance of nerve growth cones. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2006; 16:52-8.

7. Dent EW, Tang F, Kalil K. Axon guidance by growth cones and branches: common cytoskeletal and signaling mechanisms. Neuroscientist 2003; 9:343-53.

8. Fan J, Mansfield SG, Redmond T, Gordon-Weeks PR, Raper JA. The organization of F-actin and microtubules in growth cones exposed to a brain-derived collapsing factor. J Cell Biol 1993; 121:867-78.

9. Zhou FQ, Cohan CS. Growth cone collapse through coincident loss of actin bundles and leading edge actin without actin depolymerization. J Cell Biol 2001; 153:1071-84.

10. Drees F, Gertler FB. Ena/VASP: proteins at the tip of the nervous system. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2008; 18:53-9.

11. Pantaloni D, Carlier MF. How profilin promotes actin filament assembly in the presence of thymosin beta 4. Cell 1993; 75:1007-14.

12. Wills Z, Marr L, Zinn K, Goodman CS, Van Vactor D. Profilin and the Abl tyrosine kinase are required for motor axon outgrowth in the Drosophila embryo. Neuron 1999; 22:291-9.

13. Carlier MF, Laurent V, Santolini J, Melki R, Didry D, Xia GX, et al. Actin depolymerizing factor (ADF/cofilin) enhances the rate of filament turnover: implication in actin-based motility. J Cell Biol 1997; 136:1307-22.

14. Moriyama K, Yahara I. Two activities of cofilin, severing and accelerating directional depolymerization of actin filaments, are affected differentially by mutations around the actin-binding helix. EMBO J 1999; 18:6752-61.

15. Yin HL, Stossel TP. Control of cytoplasmic actin gel-sol transformation by gelsolin, a calcium-dependent regulatory protein. Nature 1979; 281:583-6.

16. Lin CH, Forscher P. Growth cone advance is inversely proportional to retrograde F-actin flow. Neuron 1995; 14:763-71.

17. Long KE, Lemmon V. Dynamic regulation of cell adhesion molecules during axon outgrowth. J Neurobiol 2000; 44:230-45.

18. Robles E, Gomez TM. Focal adhesion kinase signaling at sites of integrin-mediated adhesion controls axon pathfinding. Nat Neurosci 2006; 9:1274-83.

19. Moore SW, Sheetz MP. Biophysics of substrate interactions: influence on neural motility, differentiation and repair. Dev Neurobiol 2011; 71:1090-101

20. Tessier-Lavigne M, Goodman CS. The molecular biology of axon guidance. Science 1996; 274:1123-33.

21. Ahsan M, Riley KL, Schubert FR. Molecular mechanisms in the formation of the medial longitudinal fascicle. J Anat 2007; 211:177- 87.

22. Anitha A, Nakamura K, Yamada K, Suda S, Thanseem I, Tsujii M, et al. Genetic analyses of roundabout (ROBO) axon guidance receptors in autism. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2008; 147B:1019- 27.

23. Atz ME, Rollins B, Vawter MP. NCAM1 association study of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia: polymorphisms and alternatively spliced isoforms lead to similarities and differences. Psychiatr Genet 2007; 17:55-67.

24. Benitez-Burraco A. Neurobiology and neurogenetics of dyslexia. Neurologia 2010; 25:563-81.

25. Kenwrick S, Watkins A, De Angelis E. Neural cell recognition molecule L1: relating biological complexity to human disease mutations. Hum Mol Genet 2000; 9:879-86.

26. Vawter MP. Dysregulation of the neural cell adhesion molecule and neuropsychiatric disorders. Eur J Pharmacol 2000; 405:385-95.

27. Lumsden AG, Davies AM. Earliest sensory nerve fibres are guided to peripheral targets by attractants other than nerve growth factor. Nature 1983; 306:786-8.

28. Rochlin MW, Farbman AI. Trigeminal ganglion axons are repelled by their presumptive targets. J Neurosci 1998; 18:6840-52.

29. Hedgecock EM, Culotti JG, Hall DH. The unc-5, unc-6, and unc- 40 genes guide circumferential migrations of pioneer axons and mesodermal cells on the epidermis in C. elegans. Neuron 1990; 4:61- 85.

30. Chan SS, Zheng H, Su MW, Wilk R, Killeen MT, Hedgecock EM, et al. UNC-40, a C. elegans homolog of DCC (Deleted in Colorectal Cancer), is required in motile cells responding to UNC-6 netrin cues. Cell 1996; 87:187-95.

31. Brose K, Bland KS, Wang KH, Arnott D, Henzel W, Goodman CS, et al. Slit proteins bind Robo receptors and have an evolutionarily conserved role in repulsive axon guidance. Cell 1999; 96:795-806.

32. Itoh A, Miyabayashi T, Ohno M, Sakano S. Cloning and expressions of three mammalian homologues of Drosophila slit suggest possible roles for Slit in the formation and maintenance of the nervous system. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 1998; 62:175-86.

33. Keino-Masu K, Masu M, Hinck L, Leonardo ED, Chan SS, Culotti JG, et al. Deleted in Colorectal Cancer (DCC) encodes a netrin receptor. Cell 1996; 87:175-85.

34. Serafini T, Kennedy TE, Galko MJ, Mirzayan C, Jessell TM, Tessier- Lavigne M. The netrins define a family of axon outgrowth-promoting proteins homologous to C. elegans UNC-6. Cell 1994; 78:409-24.

35. Moore SW, Tessier-Lavigne M, Kennedy TE. Netrins and their receptors. Adv Exp Med Biol 2007; 621:17-31.

36. Dickson BJ, Gilestro GF. Regulation of commissural axon pathfinding by slit and its Robo receptors. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 2006; 22:651- 75.

37. Kidd T, Bland KS, Goodman CS. Slit is the midline repellent for the robo receptor in Drosophila. Cell 1999; 96:785-94.

38. Reeber SL, Kaprielian Z. Leaving the midline: how Robo receptors regulate the guidance of post-crossing spinal commissural axons. Cell Adh Migr 2009; 3:300-4.

39. Stein E, Tessier-Lavigne M. Hierarchical organization of guidance receptors: silencing of netrin attraction by slit through a Robo/DCC receptor complex. Science 2001 ; 291:1928-38.

40. Chen Z, Gore BB, Long H, Ma L, Tessier-Lavigne M. Alternative splicing of the Robo3 axon guidance receptor governs the midline switch from attraction to repulsion. Neuron 2008; 58:325-32.

41. Mambetisaeva ET, Andrews W, Camurri L, Annan A, Sundaresan V. Robo family of proteins exhibit differential expression in mouse spinal cord and Robo-Slit interaction is required for midline crossing in vertebrate spinal cord. Dev Dyn 2005; 233:41-51.

42. Sabatier C, Plump AS, Le M, Brose K, Tamada A, Murakami F, et al. The divergent Robo family protein rig-1/Robo3 is a negative regulator of slit responsiveness required for midline crossing by commissural axons. Cell 2004; 117:157-69.

43. Luo Y, Raible D, Raper JA. Collapsin: a protein in brain that induces the collapse and paralysis of neuronal growth cones. Cell 1993; 75:217- 27.

44. Gherardi E, Love CA, Esnouf RM, Jones EY. The sema domain. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2004; 14:669-78.

45. Semaphorin nomenclature committee. Unified nomenclature for the semaphorins/collapsins. Cell 1999; 97:551-2.

46. He Z, Wang KC, Koprivica V, Ming G, Song HJ. Knowing how to navigate: mechanisms of semaphorin signaling in the nervous system. Science’s STKE 2002; 2002:re1.

47. Marin O, Yaron A, Bagri A, Tessier-Lavigne M, Rubenstein JL. Sorting of striatal and cortical interneurons regulated by semaphorin-neuropilin interactions. Science 2001; 293:872-5.

48. Ben-Zvi A, Yagil Z, Hagalili Y, Klein H, Lerman O, Behar O. Semaphorin 3A and neurotrophins: a balance between apoptosis and survival signaling in embryonic DRG neurons. J Neurochem 2006; 96:585-97.

49. Fenstermaker V, Chen Y, Ghosh A, Yuste R. Regulation of dendritic length and branching by semaphorin 3A. J Neurobiol 2004; 58:403- 12.

50. Morita A, Yamashita N, Sasaki Y, Uchida Y, Nakajima O, Nakamura F, et al. Regulation of dendritic branching and spine maturation by semaphorin3A-Fyn signaling. J Neurosci 2006; 26:2971-80.

51. Polleux F, Morrow T, Ghosh A. Semaphorin 3A is a chemoattractant for cortical apical dendrites. Nature 2000; 404:567-73.

52. Bouzioukh F, Daoudal G, Falk J, Debanne D, Rougon G, Castellani V. Semaphorin3A regulates synaptic function of differentiated hippocampal neurons. Eur J Neurosci 2006; 23:2247-54.

53. Sahay A, Kim CH, Sepkuty JP, Cho E, Huganir RL, Ginty DD, et al. Secreted semaphorins modulate synaptic transmission in the adult hippocampus. J Neurosci 2005; 25:3613-20.

54. Tran TS, Kolodkin AL, Bharadwaj R. Semaphorin regulation of cellular morphology. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 2007; 23:263-92.

55. O’Leary DD, Wilkinson DG. Eph receptors and ephrins in neural development. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1999; 9:65-73.

56. Gale NW, Holland SJ, Valenzuela DM, Flenniken A, Pan L, Ryan TE, et al. Eph receptors and ligands comprise two major specificity subclasses and are reciprocally compartmentalized during embryogenesis. Neuron 1996; 17:9-19.

57. Davy A, Soriano P. Ephrin signaling in vivo: look both ways. Dev Dyn 2005; 232:1-10.

58. Holland SJ, Gale NW, Mbamalu G, Yancopoulos GD, Henkemeyer M, Pawson T. Bidirectional signalling through the EPH-family receptor Nuk and its transmembrane ligands. Nature 1996; 383:722-5.

59. Hindges R, McLaughlin T, Genoud N, Henkemeyer M, O’Leary DD. EphB forward signaling controls directional branch extension and arborization required for dorsal-ventral retinotopic mapping. Neuron 2002; 35:475-87.

60. Holder N, Klein R. Eph receptors and ephrins: effectors of morphogenesis. Development 1999; 126:2033-44.

61. Holmberg J, Clarke DL, Frisen J. Regulation of repulsion versus adhesion by different splice forms of an Eph receptor. Nature 2000; 408:203-6.

62. Wilkinson DG. Multiple roles of EPH receptors and ephrins in neural development. Nat Rev Neurosci 2001; 2:155-64.

63. Eberhart J, Barr J, O’Connell S, Flagg A, Swartz ME, Cramer KS, et al. Ephrin-A5 exerts positive or inhibitory effects on distinct subsets of EphA4-positive motor neurons. J Neurosci 2004; 24:1070-8.

64. Knoll B, Zarbalis K, Wurst W, Drescher U. A role for the EphA family in the topographic targeting of vomeronasal axons. Development 2001; 28:895-906

65. Maness PF, Schachner M. Neural recognition molecules of the immunoglobulin superfamily: signaling transducers of axon guidance and neuronal migration. Nat Neurosci 2007; 10:19-26.

66. Castellani V, De Angelis E, Kenwrick S, Rougon G. Cis and trans interactions of L1 with neuropilin-1 control axonal responses to semaphorin 3A. EMBO J 2002; 21:6348-57.

67. Law CO, Kirby RJ, Aghamohammadzadeh S, Furley AJ. The neural adhesion molecule TAG-1 modulates responses of sensory axons to diffusible guidance signals. Development 2008; 135:2361-71.

68. Falk J, Bechara A, Fiore R, Nawabi H, Zhou H, Hoyo-Becerra C, et al. Dual functional activity of semaphorin 3B is required for positioning the anterior commissure. Neuron 2005; 48:63-75.

69. Paratcha G, Ledda F, Ibanez CF. The neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM is an alternative signaling receptor for GDNF family ligands. Cell 2003; 113:867-79.

70. Cohen NR, Taylor JS, Scott LB, Guillery RW, Soriano P, Furley AJ. Errors in corticospinal axon guidance in mice lacking the neural cell adhesion molecule L1. Curr Biol 1998; 8:26-33.

71. Demyanenko GP, Siesser PF, Wright AG, Brennaman LH, Bartsch U, Schachner M, et al. L1 and CHL1 Cooperate in Thalamocortical Axon Targeting. Cereb Cortex 2011 ; 21:401-12.

72. Nakamura Y, Lee S, Haddox CL, Weaver EJ, Lemmon VP. Role of the cytoplasmic domain of the L1 cell adhesion molecule in brain development. J Comp Neurol 2010; 518:1113-32.

73. Williams SE, Grumet M, Colman DR, Henkemeyer M, Mason CA, Sakurai T. A role for Nr-CAM in the patterning of binocular visual pathways. Neuron 2006; 50:535-47.

74. Kurumaji A, Nomoto H, Okano T, Toru M. An association study between polymorphism of L1CAM gene and schizophrenia in a Japanese sample. Am J Med Genet 2001; 105:99-104.

75. Zhang L. CRASH syndrome: does it teach us about neurotrophic functions of cell adhesion molecules? Neuroscientist 2010; 16:470-4.

76. Bonfanti L. PSA-NCAM in mammalian structural plasticity and neurogenesis. Prog Neurobiol 2006; 80:129-64.

77. Easter SS, Jr., Burrill J, Marcus RC, Ross LS, Taylor JS, Wilson SW. Initial tract formation in the vertebrate brain. Prog Brain Res 1994; 102:79- 93.

78. Goodman CS, Shatz CJ. Developmental mechanisms that generate precise patterns of neuronal connectivity. Cell 1993; 72 Suppl:77-98.

79. Chedotal A, Richards LJ. Wiring the brain: the biology of neuronal guidance. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2010; 2:a001917.

80. Hynes RO. The extracellular matrix: not just pretty fibrils. Science 2009; 326:1216-9.

81. Burgeson RE, Chiquet M, Deutzmann R, Ekblom P, Engel J, Kleinman H, et al. A new nomenclature for the laminins. Matrix Biol 1994; 14:209-11.

82. Plantman S, Patarroyo M, Fried K, Domogatskaya A, Tryggvason K, Hammarberg H, et al. Integrin-laminin interactions controlling neurite outgrowth from adult DRG neurons in vitro. Mol Cell Neurosci 2008; 39:50-62.

83. Hopker VH, Shewan D, Tessier-Lavigne M, Poo M, Holt C. Growthcone attraction to netrin-1 is converted to repulsion by laminin-1. Nature 1999; 401:69-73.

84. Sanes JR. Extracellular matrix molecules that influence neural development. Annu Rev Neurosci 1989; 12:491-516.

85. Sanes JR, Schachner M, Covault J. Expression of several adhesive macromolecules (N-CAM, L1, J1, NILE, uvomorulin, laminin, fibronectin, and a heparan sulfate proteoglycan) in embryonic, adult, and denervated adult skeletal muscle. J Cell Biol 1986 ; 102:420-31.

86. Meiners S, Nur-e-Kamal MS, Mercado ML. Identification of a neurite outgrowth-promoting motif within the alternatively spliced region of human tenascin-C. J Neurosci 2001; 21:7215-25.

87. Jones FS, Jones PL. The tenascin family of ECM glycoproteins: structure, function, and regulation during embryonic development and tissue remodeling. Dev Dyn 2000 ; 218:235-59.

88. Mercado ML, Nur-e-Kamal A, Liu HY, Gross SR, Movahed R, Meiners S. Neurite outgrowth by the alternatively spliced region of human tenascin-C is mediated by neuronal alpha7beta1 integrin. J Neurosci 2004; 24:238-47.

89. Jones LS. Integrins: possible functions in the adult CNS. Trends Neurosci 1996 ; 19:68-72.

90. Gomez TM, Roche FK, Letourneau PC. Chick sensory neuronal growth cones distinguish fibronectin from laminin by making substratum contacts that resemble focal contacts. J Neurobiol 1996; 29:18-34.

91. Mai J, Fok L, Gao H, Zhang X, Poo MM. Axon initiation and growth cone turning on bound protein gradients. J Neurosci 2009; 29:7450-8.

92. Mohammadi M, Olsen SK, Goetz R. A protein canyon in the FGF-FGF receptor dimer selects from an a la carte menu of heparan sulfate motifs. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2005; 15:506-16.

93. Wojcik-Stanaszek L, Gregor A, Zalewska T. Regulation of neurogenesis by extracellular matrix and integrins. Acta Neurobiol Exp 2011; 71:103-12.

94. Vaillant C, Meissirel C, Mutin M, Belin MF, Lund LR, Thomasset N. MMP-9 deficiency affects axonal outgrowth, migration, and apoptosis in the developing cerebellum. Mol Cell Neurosci 2003; 24:395-408.

95. Properzi F, Asher RA, Fawcett JW. Chondroitin sulphate proteoglycans in the central nervous system: changes and synthesis after injury. Biochem Soc Trans 2003; 31:335-6.

96. Xie F, Zheng B. White matter inhibitors in CNS axon regeneration failure. Exp Neurol 2008; 209:302-12.

97. Ebendal T. The relative roles of contact inhibition and contact guidance in orientation of axons extending on aligned collagen fibrils in vitro. Exp Cell Res 1976; 98:159-69.

98. Alexander JK, Fuss B, Colello RJ. Electric field-induced astrocyte alignment directs neurite outgrowth. Neuron Glia Biol 2006; 2:93- 103.

99. Rakic P. Mode of cell migration to the superficial layers of fetal monkey neocortex. J Comp Neurol 1972; 145:61-83.

100. Hynes RO, Patel R, Miller RH. Migration of neuroblasts along preexisting axonal tracts during prenatal cerebellar development. J Neurosci 1986; 6:867-76.

101. Manwaring ME, Walsh JF, Tresco PA. Contact guidance induced organization of extracellular matrix. Biomaterials 2004; 25:3631-8.

102. Fozdar DY, Lee YJ, Schmidt CE, Chen S. Selective axonal growth of embryonic hippocampal neurons according to topographic features of various sizes and shapes. Int J Nanomedicine 2011; 6:45-57.

103. Gomez N, Chen S, Schmidt CE. Polarization of hippocampal neurons with competitive surface stimuli: contact guidance cues are preferred over chemical ligands. J R Soc Interface 2007; 4:223-33.

104. Elkin BS, Morrison B, 3rd. Region-specific tolerance criteria for the living brain. Stapp Car Crash J 2007; 51:127-38.

105. Gefen A, Gefen N, Zhu Q, Raghupathi R, Margulies SS. Age-dependent changes in material properties of the brain and braincase of the rat. J Neurotrauma 2003; 20:1163-77.

106. Discher DE, Janmey P, Wang YL. Tissue cells feel and respond to the stiffness of their substrate. Science 2005; 310:1139-43.

107. Engler AJ, Sen S, Sweeney HL, Discher DE. Matrix elasticity directs stem cell lineage specification. Cell 2006; 126:677-89.

108. Flanagan LA, Ju YE, Marg B, Osterfield M, Janmey PA. Neurite branching on deformable substrates. Neuroreport 2002; 13:2411-5.

109. Willits RK, Skornia SL. Effect of collagen gel stiffness on neurite extension. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed 2004; 15:1521-31.

110. Kostic A, Sap J, Sheetz MP. RPTPalpha is required for rigidity-dependent inhibition of extension and differentiation of hippocampal neurons. J Cell Sci 2007; 120:3895-904.

111. Georges PC, Miller WJ, Meaney DF, Sawyer ES, Janmey PA. Matrices with compliance comparable to that of brain tissue select neuronal over glial growth in mixed cortical cultures. Biophys J 2006; 90:3012-8.

112. Giger RJ, Hollis ER, 2nd, Tuszynski MH. Guidance molecules in axon regeneration. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2010; 2:a001867.

113. Aguayo AJ, Bray GM, Perkins SC. Axon-Schwann cell relationships in neuropathies of mutant mice. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1979; 317:512-31.

114. David S, Aguayo AJ. Axonal elongation into peripheral nervous system “bridges” after central nervous system injury in adult rats. Science 1981; 214:931-3.

115. Ueno M, Katayama K, Yamauchi H, Yasoshima A, Nakayama H, Doi K. Repair process of fetal brain after 5-azacytidine-induced damage. Eur J Neurosci 2006; 24:2758-68.

116. Pasterkamp RJ, Verhaagen J. Semaphorins in axon regeneration: developmental guidance molecules gone wrong? Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2006; 361:1499-511.

117. Tannemaat MR, Korecka J, Ehlert EM, Mason MR, van Duinen SG, Boer GJ, et al. Human neuroma contains increased levels of semaphorin 3A, which surrounds nerve fibers and reduces neurite extension in vitro. J Neurosci 2007; 27:14260-4.

118. Kaneko S, Iwanami A, Nakamura M, Kishino A, Kikuchi K, Shibata S, et al. A selective Sema3A inhibitor enhances regenerative responses and functional recovery of the injured spinal cord. Nat Med 2006; 12:1380-9.

119. Ziemba KS, Chaudhry N, Rabchevsky AG, Jin Y, Smith GM. Targeting axon growth from neuronal transplants along preformed guidance pathways in the adult CNS. J Neurosci 2008; 28:340-8.

120. Tamariz E, Diaz-Martinez NE, Diaz NF, Garcia-Pena CM, Velasco I, Varela-Echavarria A. Axon responses of embryonic stem cell-derived dopaminergic neurons to semaphorins 3A and 3C. J Neurosci Res 2010; 88:971-80.

121. Jones LL, Sajed D, Tuszynski MH. Axonal regeneration through regions of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan deposition after spinal cord injury: a balance of permissiveness and inhibition. J Neurosci 2003; 23:9276-88.

122. Mosahebi A, Wiberg M, Terenghi G. Addition of fibronectin to alginate matrix improves peripheral nerve regeneration in tissue-engineered conduits. Tissue Eng 2003; 9:209-18.

123. Rao SS, Winter JO. Adhesion molecule-modified biomaterials for neural tissue engineering. Front Neuroeng 2009; 2:6.

124. Straley KS, Foo CW, Heilshorn SC. Biomaterial design strategies for the treatment of spinal cord injuries. J Neurotrauma 2010; 27:1-19.

125. Suzuki M, Itoh S, Yamaguchi I, Takakuda K, Kobayashi H, Shinomiya K, et al. Tendon chitosan tubes covalently coupled with synthesized laminin peptides facilitate nerve regeneration in vivo. J Neurosci Res 2003; 72:646-59.

126. Chew SY, Mi R, Hoke A, Leong KW. The effect of the alignment of electrospun fibrous scaffolds on Schwann cell maturation. Biomaterials 2008; 29:653-61.

127. Bozkurt A, Deumens R, Beckmann C, Olde Damink L, Schugner F, Heschel I, et al. In vitro cell alignment obtained with a Schwann cell enriched microstructured nerve guide with longitudinal guidance channels. Biomaterials 2009; 30:169-79.

128. Hu W, Gu J, Deng A, Gu X. Polyglycolic acid filaments guide Schwann cell migration in vitro and in vivo. Biotechnol Lett 2008; 30:1937-42.

129. Lietz M, Dreesmann L, Hoss M, Oberhoffner S, Schlosshauer B. Neuro tissue engineering of glial nerve guides and the impact of different cell types. Biomaterials 2006 ; 27:1425-36.

130. Biazar E, Khorasani M T, Montazeri N, Pourshamsian K, Daliri M, Rezaei M, et al. Types of neural guides and using nanotechnology for peripheral nerve reconstruction. Int J Nanomedicine 2010; 5;839-52.

131. Ma Z, Mao Z, Gao C. Surface modification and property analysis of biomedical polymers used for tissue engineering. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2007; 60:137-57

132. Singh M, Berkland C, Detamore MS. Strategies and applications for incorporating physical and chemical signal gradients in tissue engineering. Tissue Eng Part B 2008; 14:341-66.