medigraphic.com
Colegio de Medicina Interna de México.

2009, Número 2

<< Anterior Siguiente >>

Med Int Mex 2009; 25 (2)


Consecuencias metabólicas y cardiovasculares del síndrome de apnea obstructiva del sueño

Alva PJL

Idioma: Español
Referencias bibliográficas: 210
Paginas: 116-128
Archivo PDF: 384.20 Kb.


RESUMEN

Desde la descripción original del síndrome de apnea obstructiva del sueño se sabe que se acompaña de daño cardiovascular. En los últimos 10 años aparecieron suficientes evidencias epidemiológicas y mecanicistas que afirmaron su papel etiológico en la hipertensión arterial sistémica, resistencia a la insulina, obesidad e hiperlipidemia, lo que resulta en aumento de la morbilidad y la mortalidad cardiovasculares, particularmente en personas jóvenes. Los objetivos de esta revisión son: presentar de una manera comprensible y sucinta los datos clínicos más importantes y explicar por qué el síndrome de apnea obstructiva del sueño debe ser una prioridad para el médico internista, con el fin de que pueda ofrecer un mejor tratamiento a estos enfermos.


REFERENCIAS (EN ESTE ARTÍCULO)

  1. Guilleminault C, Eldridge FL, Simmons FB, Dement WC. Sleep apnea in eight children. Pediatrics 1976;58:23-30.

  2. Wilcox I, McNamara SG, Collins FL, Grunstein RR, Sullivan CE. Syndrome Z: The interactions of sleep apnoea, vascular risk factors and heart disease. Thorax 1998; 52 Suppl 3:25-28.

  3. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman CW, et al. Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Hypertension 2003;42:1206-1252.

  4. Shaw JE, Punjabi NM, Wilding JP, Alberti KGM, Zimmet PZ. Sleep disordered breathing and type 2 diabetes. A Report from the International Diabetes Federation Taskforce on Epidemiology and Prevention. Diab Res Clin Pract 2008;81:2-12.

  5. Parish JM, Adam T, Facchiano L. Relationship of metabolic syndrome and obstructive sleep apnea. J Clin Sleep Med 2007;3:467-472.

  6. Harsh IA. Metabolic disturbances in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome. Eur Respir Rev 2007;16:196-202.

  7. McArdle N, Hillman D, Beilin L, Watts G. Metabolic risk factors for vascular disease in obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;175:190-195.

  8. Kono M, Tatsumi K, Saibara T, Nakamura A, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome is associated with some components of metabolic syndrome. Chest 2007;131:1387-1392.

  9. Gozal D, Capdevila AS, Kheirandish-Gozal L. Metabolic alterations and systemic inflammation in obstructive sleep apnea among nonobese and obese prepubertal children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;177:1142-1149.

  10. Jean-Louis G, Zizi F, Clark LT, Brown CD, McFarlane SI. Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Cardiovascular Disease: Role of the Metabolic Syndrome and its components. J Clin Sleep Med 2008;4:261-272.

  11. Redline S, Storfer-Isser A, Rosen CL, Johnson NL, et al. Association between metabolic syndrome and sleep disordered breathing in adolescents. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;176:401-408.

  12. Terán J, Alonso ML, Cordero J, Ayuela-Azcarate JM, Monserrat- Canal JM. Síndrome de apneas-hipopneas durante el sueño y corazón. Rev Esp Cardiol 2006;59:718-724.

  13. Harsch IA. Metabolic disturbances in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome. Eur Respir Rev 2007;16:196- 202.

  14. Buyse B, Hedner J, and the participants of working group 2. Sleep apnea, hypertension and vascular disease: where are we now. Eur Respir Rev 2007; 16:169-182.

  15. McNicholas WT, Bonsignore MR, and the Management Committee of EU CA B26. Sleep apnoea as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease: current evidence, basic mechanism and research priorities. Eur Respir J 2007;29:156-78.

  16. Tasali E, Mokhlesi B, Van Cauter E. Obstructive sleep apnea and type 2 diabetes: interacting epidemics. Chest 2008;133:496-506.

  17. Lam JCM, Ip MSM. An update on obstructive sleep apnea and the metabolic syndrome. Current Opin Pulm Med 2008;13:484- 89.

  18. López-Jiménez F, Sert-Kuniyoshi FH, Apoor G, Somers VK. Obstructive Sleep Apnea Implications for Cardiac and Vascular Disease. Chest 2008;133:793-804,

  19. Somers VK, White DP, Amin R, Abraham WT, et al. Sleep Apnea and Cardiovascular Disease; An American Heart Association/ American College of Cardiology Foundation, scientific statement from the American Heart Association Council for High Blood Pressure Research Professional Education Committee, Council on Clinical Cardiology, Stroke Council and Council on Cardiovascular Nursing Council. Circulation 2008; 118:DOI:10.1161/circulationaha.107.189420. Downloaded from cir.Ahajournals.org on july 29, 2008.

  20. Levy P, Pepin JL, Arnaud C, Tamisier R, et al. Intermitent hypoxia and sleep-disordered breathing: current concepts and perspectives. Eur Respir J 2008;32:1082-1095.

  21. Zamarrón C, García-Paz V, Riveiro A. Obstructive sleep apnea is a systemic disease. Current evidence. Eur J Int Med 2008;19:390-398.

  22. Violante OR, Porres A. Diabesidad: un enfoque epidemiológico y preventivo. Med Int Mex 2005;21:386-92.

  23. Lavie P. Sleep Medicine, Time for a Change. J Clin Sleep Med 2006;2:207-211.

  24. American Sleep Disorder Association. International classification of sleep disorders. 2nd ed. pocket version. Diagnostic and Coding Manual. Westchester, Illinois: American Academy of Sleep Medicine, 2005; pp 43-46

  25. Durán J, Esnaola S, Rubio R, Iztueta A. Obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea and related clinical features in a populationbased sample of subjects aged 30 to 70 yr. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;163:685-89.

  26. Nguyen ATD, Yim S, Malhotra A. Pathogenesis. Obstructive Sleep Apnea. Pathophysiology, comorbidities and consequences. New York: Kushida CA. 2007:171-195.

  27. O’Donnel CP, Allan L, Atkinson P, Schwartz AR. The effect of upper airway obstruction and arousal on peripheral arterial tonometry in obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;166:965-971.

  28. Castiglioni P, Lombardi C, Di Rienzo M, Lugaresi E, et al. Whatare the causes of excessive daytime sleepiness in patients with sleep-disordered breathing. Eur Respir J 2008;32:526-527.

  29. Almendros I, Carrera A, Ramírez J, Montserrat J, et al. Upper airway collapse and reopening induce inflammation in a sleep apnoea model. Eur Respir J 2008;32:399-404.

  30. Goldbart AD, Goldman JL, Li RC, Brittian KR, Tauman R, Gozal D. Differential expression of cysteinyl leukotriene receptors 1 and 2 in tonsils of children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome or recurrent infection. Chest 2004;126:13-18.

  31. Kaditis AG, Ioannou MG, Chaidas K, Alexopoulus EI, et al. Cysteinyl Leukotriene receptors are expressed by tonsillar T cells of children with obstructive sleep Apnea. Chest 2008;134:324- 331.

  32. Kheirandish-Gozal L, Gozal D. Intranasal Budesonide. Treatment for children with mild obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Pediatrics 2008;122:e149-e155. (doi:10.1542/ peds.2007-3398) Published online July 1, 2008.

  33. Goldbart AD, Goldman JL, Veiling MC, Gozal D. Leukotriene modifier therapy for mild sleep-disordered breathing in children. Am J Resp Crit Care Med 2005;172:364-370.

  34. Puig F, Rico F, Almendros I, Montserrat JM, Navajas D, Farré R. Vibration enhances interleukin-8 release in a cell model of snoring-induced airway inflammation. Sleep 2005;28:1312- 1316.

  35. Amatoury J, Howitt L, Wheatley JR, Avolio A, Amis TC. Snoringrelated energy transmission to the carotid artery in rabbits. J Appl Physiol 2006;100:1547-1553.

  36. Almendros I, Acerbi I, Puig F, Montserrat JM, Navajas D, Farré R. Upper-airway inflammation triggered by vibration in a rat model of snoring. Sleep 2007;30:225-227.

  37. Lee SA, Amis TC, Byth K, Larcos G, et al. Heavy snoring as a cause of carotid artery atherosclerosis. Sleep 2008;31:1207- 1213.

  38. Minoguchi K, Yokoe T, Tazaki T, Minoguchi H, et al. Increased carotid intima-media thickness and serum inflammatory markers in obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005;172:625-630.

  39. Drager LF, Bortolotto LA, Lorenzi MC, Figueiredo AC, Krieger AM, Lorenzi-Filho G. Early signs of atherosclerosis in obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005;172:613- 618.

  40. Drager LF, Bortolotto LA, Figueiredo AC, Krieger EM, Lorenzi- Filho G. Effects of continuous positive airway pressure on early signs of atherosclerosis in obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;176:706-712.

  41. Wu HD, Tang J, Jolley C, Steier J, et al. Neural respiratory drive during apnoeic events in obstructive sleep apnoea. Eur Respir J 2008;31:650-657.

  42. Banzett RB, Pedersen SH, Schwarstein RM, Lansing RW. The affective dimension of laboratory dyspnea. Air hunger is more unpleasant than Work/Effort. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;177:1384-1390.

  43. Vassilakopoulos T Katsaounou P Karatza MH, Kollintza A, Zakynthinos S, Roussos C. Strenuous resistive breathing induces plasma citokynes. Role of Antioxidants and Monocytes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;166:1572-1578.

  44. Peiffer C, Poline JB, Thivard L, Aubier M, Samson Y. Neural substrates for the perception of acutely induced dyspnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;163: 951-957.

  45. Von Leupoldt A, Sommer T, Kegat S, Baumann HJ, et al. The Unpleasantness of perceived dyspnea is processed in the anterior insula and amygdala. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;177:1026-1032.

  46. Arias MA, García-Río F, Alonso-Fernández A, Mediano O, Martínez I, Villamor J. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome affects left ventricular diastolic function: effects of nasal continuous positive airway pressure in men. Circulation 2005;112:375-383.

  47. Otto ME, Belohlavek M, Romero-Corral A, Gami AS, et al. Comparison of cardiac structural and functional changes in obese otherwise healthy adults with versus without obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Cardiol 2007;99:1298-1302.

  48. Moro JA, Almenar L, Fernández-Fabrellas E, Ponce S, Blanquer R, Salvador A. Análisis de las alteraciones ecocardiograficaas del síndrome de apneas e hipopneas del sueño y su modificación con la presencia de hipertensión arterial. Rev Esp Cardiol 2008;61:49-57.

  49. Romero-Corral A, Somers VK, Pellikka PA, Olson EJ, et al. Decreased right and left ventricular myocardial performance in obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 2007;132:1863-1870.

  50. Sampol G, Romero O, Salas A, Tovar JL, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea and thoracic aorta dissection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003;168:1528-1531.

  51. Hall MJ, Ando SI, Floras JS, Bradley TD. Magnitude and time course of hemodynamic response to Mueller maneuvers in patients with congestive heart failure. J Appl Physiol 1998;85:1476-1484.

  52. Parker JD, Brooks D, Kozar LF, Render-Texeira CL, et al. Acute and chronic effects of airway obstruction on canine left ventricular performance. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;160:1888-1896.

  53. Dean RT, Wilcox I. Possible atherogenic effects of hypoxia during obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep 1993; 16 Suppl 1:15-22.

  54. Budhiraja, R. Parthasarathy S, Quan SF. Endothelial dysfunction in obstructive sleep apnea. J Clin Sleep Med 2007; 3:409-415.

  55. Suzukia YJ, Jainb V, Parka AM, Dayc RM. Oxidative stress and oxidant signaling in obstructive sleep apnea and associated cardiovascular diseases. Free Radic Biol Med 2006;40:1683– 1692.

  56. Shultz R, Mahmoudi S Hattar K, Sibelius U, et al. Enhanced release of superoxide from polymorphonuclear neutrophils in obstructive sleep apnea. Impact of continuous positive airway pressure therapy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;162:566- 570.

  57. Dyugovkaya L, Lavie P, Lavie L. Increased adhesion molecules expression and production of reactive oxygen species in leukocytes of sleep apnea patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;165:934-939.

  58. Yamauchi M, Nakano H, Maekawa J, Yukinori O, et al. Oxidative stress in obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 2005;127:1674- 1679.

  59. Gozal D, Kheirandish-Gozal L. Cardiovascular morbidity in obstructive sleep apnea: oxidative stress, inflammation, and much more. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;177:369-375.

  60. Lavie L, Vishnesky A, Lavie P. Evidence for lipid peroxidation in obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep 2004;27:123-128.

  61. Barceló A, Barbé F, de la Peña M, Vila M, et al. Antioxidant status in patients with sleep apnoea and impact of continuous positive airway pressure treatment. Eur Respir J 2006;27:756- 760.

  62. Faure P, Tamisier R, Baguet JP, Favier A, et al. Impairment of serum albumin antioxidant properties in obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome. Eur Respir J 2008;31:1046-1053.

  63. Ryan S, Taylor CT, McNicholas WT. Selective activation of inflammatory pathways by intermittent hypoxia in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Circulation 2005;112:2660-2667.

  64. Fletcher EC, Lesske J, Qian W, Miller CC 3rd, Unger T. Repetitive, episodic hypoxia causes diurnal elevation of blood pressure in rats. Hypertension 1993;19:555-561.

  65. Savransky V, Nanayakkara A, Li J, Bevans S, et al. Chronic intermittent hypoxia induces atheroesclerosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;175:1290-1297.

  66. Li J, Savransky V, Nanayakkara A, Smith PL, O’Donnell CP, Polotsky VY. Hyperlipidemia and lipid peroxidation are dependent on the severity of chronic intermittent hypoxia. J Appl Physiol 2007;102: 557-563.

  67. Row BW, Liu R, Xu W, Kheirandish L, Gozal D. Intermittent hypoxia is associated with oxidative stress and spatial learning deficits in the rat. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003;167:1548- 1553.

  68. Dematteis M, Julien C, Guillermet C, Sturn N, et al. Intermittent hypoxia induces early functional cardiovascular remodeling in mice. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;177-227-235.

  69. Iiyori N, Alonso LC, Li J, Sanders MH, et al. Intermittent hypoxia causes insulin resistance in lean mice independent of autonomic activity. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;175:851-857.

  70. Lefebvre B, Pepin JL, Baguet JP, Tamisier R, et al. Leucotriene B4: early mediator of atherosclerosis in obstructive sleep apnoea. Eur Respir J 2008;32:113-120.

  71. Mayer P, Dematteis M, Pepin JL, Wuyam B, et al. Peripheral neuropathy in sleep apnea. A tissue marker of the severity of nocturnal desaturation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;159:213-219.

  72. Nakagawa Y, Kishida K, Kihara S, Sonoda M, et al. Nocturnal reduction in circulating adiponectin concentrations related to hypoxic stress in severe obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome. Am J Physol End Met 2008;294:E 778-784.

  73. Norman D, Bardwell W, Arosamena F, Nelesen R, et al. Serum aminotransferase levels are associated with markers of hypoxia in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep 2008;31:121-126.

  74. Phillips BG, Narkiewicz K, Pesek CA, Haynes WG, Dyken ME, Somers VK. Effects of obstructive sleep apnea on endothelin-1 and blood pressure. J Hypertens 1999;17:61-66.

  75. Schulz R, Schmidt D, Blum A , Lopes-Ribeiro X, et al. Decreased plasma levels of nitric oxide and L-arginine in sleep apnea patients: response to CPAP therapy. Thorax 2000;55:1046- 1051.

  76. Kobayashi M, Miyazawa N, Takeno M, Murakami S, et al. Circulating carbon monoxide level is elevated after sleep in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 2008;134:904- 910.

  77. Baguet JP, Hammer L, Levy P, Pierre H, et al. The severity of oxygen desaturation is predictive of carotid wall thickening and plaque occurrence. Chest 2005;128:3407- 3412.

  78. Hirshkowitz M. The clinical consequences of obstructive sleep apnea and associated excessive sleepiness J Fam Pract. 2008;57S:9-16

  79. Peled N, Kassirer M, Kramer MR, Rogowski O, et al. Increased erytrocyte adhesiveness and aggregation in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome Thrombosis Res 2008;121:631-636.

  80. Carpagnano GE, Kharitonov SA, Resta O, Foschino-Barbaro MP, et al. Increased 8-isoprostane and interleukin-6 in breath condensate of obstructive sleep apnea patients. Chest 2002;122:1162-1167.

  81. Minoguchi K, Tazaki T, Yokoe T, Minoguchi H, et al. Elevated production of tumor necrosis factor alpha by monocytes in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Chest 2004;126:1473-1476.

  82. Arias MA, García-Río F, Alonso-Fernández A, Hernanz A, et al. CPAP decreases plasma levels of soluble tumor necrosis factor-α receptor 1 in obstructive sleep apnea. Eur Respir J 2008;32:1009-1015.

  83. Punjabi NM, Beamer BA. C-reactive protein is associated with sleep-disordered breathing independent of adiposity. Sleep 2007;30:29-34.

  84. Larkin EK, Rosen CL, Kirchner L, Storfer-Isser A, et al. Variation of C-Reactive protein levels in adolescents. Association with sleep-disordered breathing and sleep duration. Circulation 2005;111:1978-1984.

  85. Goldbart AD, Krishna J, Li RC, Serpero LD, Gozal D. Inflammatory mediators in exhaled breath condensate of children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Chest 2006;130:143- 148.

  86. Gozal D, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Serpero L, Capdevila OS, Dayyat E. Obstructive sleep apnea and endothelial function in school-aged nonobese children: effect of adenotonsillectomy. Circulation 2007;116:2307-2314.

  87. Nieto FJ, Herrington DM, Redline S, Benjamin EJ, Robbins JA. Sleep apnea and markers of vascular endothelial function in a large community sample of older adults. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004;169:354-360.

  88. Ip MS, Tse HF, Lam B, Tsang KW, Lam WK. Endothelial function in obstructive sleep apnea and response to treatment. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004;169:348-353.

  89. Itzhaki S, Lavie L, Pillar G, Tal G, Lavie P. Endothelial dysfunction in obstructive sleep apnea measured by peripheral arterial tone response in the finger to reactive hyperemia. Sleep 2005;28:594-600.

  90. Lattimore JL, Wilcox I, Skilton M, Langenfield M, CelerMajer DS. Treatment of obstructive sleep apnoea leads to improved microvascular endothelial function in the systemic circulation. Thorax 2006;61:491-495.

  91. El Solh AA, Akinnusi ME, Baddoura FH, Mankowski CR. Endothelial cell apoptosis in obstructive sleep apnea: a link to endothelial dysfunction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;175:1186-1191.

  92. Kohler M, Craig S, Nicoll D, Lesson P, Davies RJO, Stradling JR. Endothelial function and arterial stiffness in minimally symptomatic obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;178:984-988.

  93. Sánchez-Armengol A, Ruiz-García A, Carmona-Bernal C, Botebol-Benhamou G, et al. Clinical and polygraphic evolution of sleep related breathing disorders in adolescents. Eur Respir J 2008;32:1016-1022.

  94. Farfulla F, Grassi M, Taurino AE, D΄Artavilla LN, Trencin R. The relationship of daytime hypoxemia and nocturnal hypoxia in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Sleep 2008;31:249-255.

  95. Kawata N, Tatsumi K, Terada J, Tada Y, et al. Day time hypercapnea in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Chest 2007;132:1832-1838.

  96. Flemmons WW, Whitelaw WA, Brant R, Remmers JE. Likelihood ratios for sleep apnea clinic prediction rule. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;150:1279-1285.

  97. Netzer NC, Stoohs RA, Netzer CM, Clark K, Strohl KP. Using the Berlin questionnaire to identify patients at risk for the sleep apnea syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1999;131:485-491.

  98. Fletcher EC, DeBehnke RD, Lovoi MS, Gorin AB. Undiagnosed sleep apnea in patients with essential hypertension. Ann Intern Med 1985;103:190-195.

  99. Sjöström C, Lindberg E, Elmasry A, Hägg A, Svärdsudd K, Janson C. Prevalence of sleep apnoea and snoring in hypertensive men: a population based study. Thorax 2002;57:602- 607.

  100. Logan AG, Perlikowski SM, Mente A, Tisler A, et al. High prevalence of unrecognized sleep apnoea in drug-resistant hypertension. J Hypertens 2001; 119:2271-2277.

  101. Goncalves S, Martinez D, Gus M, de Abreu-Silva O, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea and resistant hypertension: a casecontrol study. Chest 2007;132:1858-1862.

  102. Young T, Peppard PE, Palta M, Kla KM, et al. Populationbased study of sleep-disordered breathing as a risk factor for hypertension. Arch Intern Med 1997; 157:1746-1752.

  103. Nieto FJ, Young TB, Lind BK Shahar E, et al. Association of sleep-disordered breathing, sleep apnea and hypertension in a large community-based study. Sleep Heart Health Study. JAMA 2000;283:1829-1836.

  104. Peppard PE, Young T, Palta M, Skatrud J. Prospective study of the association between seep-disordered breathing and hypertension. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1378-1384.

  105. Fletcher EC, Miller J, Schaaf JW, Fletcher JG. Urinary catecholamines before and after tracheostomy in patients with obstructive sleep apnea and hypertension. Sleep 1987;10:35- 44.

  106. Waradekar NV, Sinoway LI, Zillich CW, Leuenberger UA. Influence of treatment on muscle sympathetic nerve activity in sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;153:1333- 1338.

  107. Grassi G, Facchini A, Trevano FQ, Dell”Oro R, et al. Obstructive Sleep Apnea-dependent and –independent adrenergic activation in obesity. Hypertension 2005;46:321-325.

  108. Hedner JA, Wilcox I, Laks L, Grunstein RR, Sullivan CE. A specific and potent effect of hipoxia in patients with sleepapnea. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146:1420-1425.

  109. Narckiewicz K, van de Borne PJ, Montano N, Dyken ME, Philips BG, Somers VK. Contribution of tonic chemoreflex activation to sympathetic activity and blood pressure in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Circulation 1998; 97:943-945.

  110. Saarelainem S, Hasan J. Circulating endothelin-1 and obstructive sleep apnoea. Eur Respir J 2000;16:794-795.

  111. Gjorup PH, Sadauskiene L,Wessels J, Nyvad O, Strunge B, Pedersen EB. Abnormally increased endothelin-1 in plasma during the night in obstructive sleep apnea: relation to blood pressure and severity of disease. Am J Hyperten 2007;20:44- 52.

  112. Follenius M, Krieger J, Krauth MO, Sforza F, Bradenberger G, Obstructive sleep apnea treatment: Peripherals and central effects on plasma rennin activity and aldosterone. Sleep 1991;14:211-217.

  113. Pratt-Ubunama MN, Nishizaka MK, Boedefeld RL, Cofield SS, Harding SM, Calhoun DA. Plasma aldosterone is related to severity of obstructive sleep apnea in subjects with resistant hypertension. Chest 2007;131:453-459.

  114. Barbe F, Mayorales LR, Duran J. Masa JF, et al. Treatment with continuous positive airway pressure is not effective in patients with sleep but no daytime sleepiness: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 2001;34:1015-1023.

  115. Robinson GV, Langford BA, Smith DM Stradling JR. Predictors of blood pressure fall with continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) treatment of obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA). Thorax 2008;63:855-859.

  116. Robinson GV, Smith DM, Langford BA, Davies RJ, Stradling JR. CPAP does not reduce blood pressure in non-sleepy hypertensive OSA patients. Eur Respir J 2006;27:1229-1235.

  117. Becker HF, Jerrentrup A, Ploch T, Grote L, et al. Effect of nasal continuous positive airway pressure treatment on blood pressure in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Circulation 2003;107:68-73.

  118. Dorkova Z, Petrasova D, Molcanyiova A, Popovnokova M, Tkacova R. Effects of continuous positive airway pressure on cardiovascular risk profile in patients with severe obstructive sleep apnea and metabolic syndrome. Chest 2008;134:686- 692.

  119. Logan AG, Tkacova R, Perlikowski SM, Leung RS, et al. Refractory hypertension and sleep apnoea: effect of CPAP on Blood pressure and baroreflex. Eur Respir J 2003;21:241-247.

  120. Meslier N, Gagnadoux F, Giraud P, Person C, et al. Impaired glucose-insulin metabolism in males with obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome. Eur Respir J 2003;22:156-160.

  121. West SD, Nicoll DJ, Stradling JR. Prevalence of obstructive Sleep apnoea in men with type 2 diabetes. Thorax 2006;61:945-950.

  122. Bottini P, Redolfi S, Dottorini ML, Tantucci C. Autonomic Neuropathy increases the risk of obstructive sleep apnea in obese diabetics. Respiration 2008; 75:265-271.

  123. Ip MS, Lam B, Ng MM, Lam WK, Tsang KW, Lam KS. Obstructive sleep apnea is independently associated with insulin resistance. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;165:670-676.

  124. Punjabi NM, Sorkin JD, Katzel LI, Goldberg AP, Schwartz AR, Smith PL. Sleep disordered breathing and insulin resistance in middle-aged and overweight men. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;165:677-682.

  125. Coughlin SR, Mawdsley L, Mugarza JA, Calverly PM, Wilding JP. Obstructive sleep apnoea is independently associated with an increased prevalence of metabolic syndrome. Eur Heart J 2004;25:735-741.

  126. Sulit L, Storfer-Isser A, Kirchner HL, Redline S. Differences in polysomnography predictors for hypertension and impaired glucose tolerance. Sleep 2006;29:777-783.

  127. Barceló A, Barbé F, de la Peña M, Martínez P, et al. Insulin Resistance and daytime sleepiness in patients with sleep apnea. Thorax 2008;63:946-950.

  128. Punjabi NM, Beamer BA. Alterations in glucose disposal in sleep-disordered breathing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008 published on line November 14, 2008 as doi:10.1164/ rccm.200809-1392OC, downloaded on november 15 2008.

  129. Harsch IA, Schahin SP, Radespiel-Troger M, Weintz O, et al. Continuous positive airway pressure treatment rapidly improves insulin sensitivity in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Am J Resp Crit Care Med 2004;169:156- 162.

  130. Montserrat JM, Garcia-Rio F, Barbé F. Diagnostic and therapeutic approach to nonsleepy apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;176:6-9.

  131. Peppard PE, Young T, Palta M, Dempsey J, Skatrud J. Longitudinal study of moderate weight change and sleep-disordered breathing. JAMA 2000;284:3015-3021.

  132. Young T, Shahar E, Nieto FJ, Redline S, et al. Predictors of sleep-disordered breathing in community-dwelling adults: The Sleep Heart Health Study. Arch Intern Med 2002;162:893- 900.

  133. Valencia-Flores M, Orea A, Castaño VA, Resendiz M, Rosales M, Rebollar V, et al. Prevalence of sleep apnea and electrocardiographic disturbances in morbidly obese patients. Obes Res 2000;8:262-269.

  134. Vgontzas AN, Biler EO, Chrousos GP. Metabolic disturbances in obesity versus sleep apnea: the importance of visceral obesity and insulin resistance. J Intern Med 2003;254:32-44.

  135. Davidson TM, Patel MR. Waist circumference and sleep disordered breathing. Laryngoscope 2008;118:339-347.

  136. Tasali E, Van Cauter E. Sleep-disordered breathing and the current epidemic of Obesity. Consequence or contributing factor. Am J Resp Crit Care Med 2002;165:562-563.

  137. Brown LK. A waist is a terrible thing to mind: Central Obesity, the metabolic syndrome, and sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome Chest 2002;122:774-777.

  138. Patel SR. Shared genetic risk factors for obstructive sleep apnea and obesity. J Appl Physiol 2005;99:1600-1606.

  139. Quan SF, Budhiraja R, Parthasarathy S. Is there a bidirectional relationship between obesity and sleep-disordered breathing? J Clin Sleep Med 2008;4:210-211.

  140. Pillar G, Shehadeh N. Abdominal fat and sleep apnea. The Chicken or the egg? Diabetes Care 2008;31 Suppl 2:303- 309.

  141. Mehra R, Redline S. Sleep apnea: A proinflammatory disorder that coaggregates with obesity. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2008;121:1096-1102.

  142. Gangwisch JE, Malaspina D, Boden-Albala B, Heymsfield SB. Inadequate sleep as a risk factor for obesity: Analyses of the NHANES I. Sleep 2005 28:1289-1296.

  143. Mullington JM, Chan JL, VanDongen HPA, Szuba MP, et al. Sleep loss reduces diurnal rhythm amplitude of leptin in healthy men. J. Neuroendocrin 2003:15;851-854.

  144. Spiegel K, Knutson K, Leproult R, Tasali E, Van Cauter E. Sleep loss: a novel risk factor for insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. J Appl Physiol 2005;99:2008-2019.

  145. Ciftci, TU, Kokturk O, Bukan N, Bilgihan A. Leptin and ghrelin levels in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Respiration 2005;72:395-401.

  146. Tatsumi K, Kasahara Y, Kurosu K, Tanabe N, Takiguchi Y, Kuriyama T. Sleep oxygen desaturation and circulating leptin in obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome. Chest 2005;127:716-721.

  147. Shimura R, Tatsumi K, Nakamura A, Kasahara Y, et al. Fat accumulation, leptin, and hypercapnea in obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome Chest 2005;127:543-549.

  148. Sanner BM, Kollhosser P, Buechner N, Zidek W, Tepel M. Influence of treatment on leptin levels in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea. Eur Respir J 2004;23:601-604.

  149. Igarashi N, Tatsumi K, Nakamura A, Sakao S, et al. Plasma Orexin-A levels in obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome. Chest 2003;124:1381-1385.

  150. Barceló A, Barbé F, Llompart E, De la Peña M, et al. Neuropetide Y and Leptin in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Role of Obesity. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005;171:183-187.

  151. Koban M, Sita LV, Le WW, Hoffman GE. Sleep deprivation of rats: the hyperphagic response is real. Sleep 2008;31:927- 933.

  152. Vazquez MM, Goodwin JL, Drescher AA, Smith TW, Quan SF. Associations of dietary intake and physical activity with sleep disordered breathing in the Apnea Positive Pressure- Longterm efficacy study (APPLES). J Clin Sleep Med 2008;4:411- 418.

  153. Choi JB, Nelesen R, Loredo JS, Mills PJ, et al. Sleepiness in obstructive sleep apnea: a harbinger of impaired cardiac function? Sleep 2006;29:15332-1536.

  154. Alonso-Fernández A, García-Río F, Arias MA, Mediano O, et al. Obstructive sleep apnoea-hypopnoea syndrome reversibly depresses cardiac response to exercise. Eur Heart J 2006;27:207-215.

  155. He J, Kruger MH, Zorick FJ, Conway W, Roth T. Mortality and apnea index in obstructive sleep apnea: experience in 385 patients. Chest 1988;94:9-14.

  156. Young T, Finn L, Peppard PE, Szklo-Coxe M, et al. Sleep Disordered Breathing and Mortality: Eighteen-Year Followup of the Wisconsin Sleep Cohort. Sleep 2008;31:1071- 1078.

  157. Marshall NS, Wong KKH, Liu PY, Cullen SRJ, Knuiman MW, Grunstein RR. Sleep apnea as an independent risk factor for all-cause mortality: The Busselton Health Study. Sleep 2008;31:1079-1085.

  158. Lavie P, Lavie L, Herer P. All-cause mortality in men with sleep apnea syndrome: declining mortality rates with age. Eur Respir J 2005;25:1-7.

  159. Marín JM, Carrizo SJ, Vicente E, Agustí AGN. Long-term cardiovascular outcomes in men with obstructive sleep apnoea-hypopnoea with or without treatment with continuous positive airway pressure: an observational study. Lancet 2005;365:1046-1053.

  160. Chaudhary BA, Ferguson DS, Speir WA. Pulmonary edema as a presenting feature of sleep apnea syndrome. Chest 1982;82:122-124.

  161. Fisher AQ, Chaudhary BA, Taormina MA, Akhtar AB. Intracranial hemodynamics in sleep apnea. Chest 1992;102:1402- 1406.

  162. Shahar E, Whitney CW, Redline S, Lee ET, et al. Sleep-disordered breathing and cardiovascular disease: cross-sectional results of the Sleep Heart Health Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;163:19-25.

  163. Bobinsky G, Millar M, Ault K, Husband P, Mitchell J. Spontaneous platelet activation and aggregation during obstructive sleep apnea and its response to therapy with nasal continuous positive airway pressure: a preliminary investigation. Chest 1995;108:625-630.

  164. Von Kanel R, Dimsdale JE. Hemostatic alterations in patients with obstructive sleep apnea and the implications for cardiovascular disease. Chest 2003;124:1956-1967.

  165. Robinson GV, Pepperell JC, Segal HC, Davies RJ, Stradling JR. Circulating cardiovascular risk factors in obstructive sleep apnoea: Data from randomised controlled trials. Thorax 2004;59:777-782.

  166. Von Kanel R, Loredo JS, Ancoli-Israel S, Mills PJ, Natarajan L, Dimsdale JE. Association between polysomnographic measures of disrupted sleep and prothrombotic factors. Chest 2007;131:733-739.

  167. Sorjja D, Gami AS, Somers VK, Behrenbeck TR, Garcia- Touchard A, Lopez-Jimenez F. Independent association between obstructive sleep apnea and subclinical coronary artery disease. Chest 2008;133:927-933.

  168. Gami AS, Pressman G, Caples SM, Kanagala R, et al. Association of atrial fibrillation and obstructive sleep apnea. Circulation 2004;110:364-367.

  169. Mehra R, Benjamin EJ, Shahar E, Gottlieb DJ, et al. Association of nocturnal arrhythmias with sleep-disordered breathing. The Sleep Heart Health Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006;173:910-916.

  170. Gami AS, Hodge DO, Herges RM, Olson EJ, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea, obesity and the risk of incident atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007:49:565-571.

  171. Garrigue S, Pépin JL, Defave P, Murgatroyd F, et al. High prevalence of sleep apnea syndrome in patients with long term pacing: the European Multicenter Polysomnographic Study. Circulation 2007;115:1703-1709.

  172. Stevenson IH, Teichtahl H, Cunnington D, Ciavarella S, Gordon I, Kalman JM. Prevalence of sleep disordered breathing in paroxysmal and persistent atrial fibrillation patients with normal left ventricular function. Eur Heart J 2008;29:1662-1669.

  173. Javaheri S, Parker TJ, Liming JD, Corbertt WS, et al. Sleep apnea in 81 ambulatory patients with stable heart failure. Types and their prevalences, consequences, and presentations. Circulation 1998;97:2154-2159.

  174. Sin DD, Fitzgerald F, Parker JD, Newton G, Floras JS, Bradley TD. Risk factors for central and obstructive sleep apnea in 450 men and women with congestive heart failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160:1101-1106.

  175. Ferrier K, Campbell A, Yee B, Richards, et al. Sleep-disordered breathing occurs frequently in stable outpatients with congestive heart failure. Chest 2005;128:2116-2122.

  176. Chan J, Sanderson J, Chan W, Lai C, et al. Prevalence of sleep disordered breathing in diastolic heart failure. Chest 1997;111:1488-1493.

  177. Laaban JP, Pascal-Sebaoun S, Bloch E, Orvoën-Frija E, Oppert JM, Huchon G. Left ventricular systolic dysfunction in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Chest 2002;122:1133- 1138.

  178. Chami HA, Deverux RB, Gottdiener JS, Mehra R, et al. Left ventricular morphology and systolic function in sleep disordered breathing: The sleep heart health study. Circulation 2008;117:2599-2607.

  179. Dursunoglu N, Dursunoglu D, Özkurt S, Gür S, Özalp G, Evyapan F. Effects of CPAP on right ventricular myocardial performance index in obstructive sleep apnea patients without hypertension. Respiratory Research 2006;7:22 doi:10.1186/1465-9921-7-22

  180. Amin R, Somers VK, McConnell K, Willging P, et al. Activityadjusted 24/hour ambulatory blood pressure and cardiac remodeling in children with sleep disordered breathing. Hypertension 2008;51:84-91.

  181. Malone S, Liu PP, Holloway R, Rutherford R, Xie A, Bradley TD. Obstructive sleep apnoea in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy: effects of continuous positive airway pressure. Lancet 1991;338:1480-1484.

  182. Mansfield DR, Gollogy NC, Kaye DM, Richardson M, Bergin P, Naughton MT. Controlled trial of continuous positive airway pressure in obstructive sleep apnea and heart failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004;169:361-366.

  183. Kasai T, Narui K, Dohi T, Yanagisawa N, et al. Prognosis of patients with heart failure and obstructive sleep apnea treated with continuous positive airway pressure. Chest 2008;133:690- 696.

  184. Arzt M, Young T, Finn L, Skatrud JB, et al. Sleepiness and sleep in patients with both systolic heart failure and obstructive sleep apnea. Arch Intern Med 2006;166:1716- 1722.

  185. Mooe T. Rabben T, Wiklind U, Franklin KA, Eriksson P. Sleep Disordered breathing in men with coronary artery disease. Chest 1996;109:659-663.

  186. Valham F, Mooe T, Rabben T, Stenlund H, Wiklund U, Franklin K. Increased risk of stroke in patients with Coronary artery disease and sleep apnea. A 10 year follow-up. Circulation 2008;118:955-960.

  187. Peker Y, Carlson J, Hedner J. Increased incidence of coronary artery disease in sleep apnoea: a long-term follow-up. Eur Respir J 2006;28:596-602.

  188. Verrier RL, Muller JE, Hobson JA. Sleep, dreams, and sudden death: the case for sleep as an autonomic stress test for the heart. Cardiovasc Res 1996;31:181-211.

  189. Kim SJ, Kuklov A, Kehoe RF, Crystal GJ. Sleep-induced hypotension precipitates severe myocardial ischemia. Sleep 2008;31:1215-1220.

  190. Hanley P, Sasson Z, Zuberi N, Lunn K. ST-segment depression during sleep in obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Cardiol 1993;71:1341-1345.

  191. Peled N, Abidaner EG, Pillar G, Sharif D, Lavie P. Nocturnal ischemic events in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome and ischemic heart disease: effects of continuous positive pressure treatment. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999;34:1744- 1749.

  192. Gami AS, Howard DE, Olson EJ, Somers VK. Day-night pattern of sudden death in obstructive sleep apnea. N Engl. J Med 2005;352:1206-1214.

  193. Doherty LS, Kiely JL, Swan C, McNicholas WT. Long-term effects of nasal continuous positive airway pressure therapy on cardiovascular outcomes in sleep apnea syndrome. Chest 2005;127:2076-2084.

  194. Partinen M, Palomaki H. Snoring and cerebral infarction Lancet 1985;2:1325-1326.

  195. Minoguchi K, Yokoe T, Tazaki T, Minoguchi H, et al. Silent brain infarction and platelet activation in obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;175:612-617.

  196. Nishibayashi M, Miyamoto M, Miyamoto T, Suzuki K, Hirta K. Correlation between severity of obstructive sleep apnea and prevalence of silent cerebrovascular lesions . J Clin Sleep Med 2008;4:242-247.

  197. Yaggi HK, Concato J, Kernan WN, Lichtman JK, Brass LM, Mohsenin V. Obstructive sleep apnea as a risk factor for stroke and death. N Engl J Med 2005;353:2034-2041.

  198. Muñoz R, Duran-Cantolla J, Martínez-Vila E, Gallego J, et al. Severe sleep apnea and risk of ischemic stroke in the elderly. Stroke 2006;37:2317-2321.

  199. Parra O, Arboix A, Montserrat JM, Quintó L, Bechich S, García-Eroles L. Sleep-related breathing disorders: impact on mortality of cerebrovascular disease. Eur Respir J 2004;24:267-272.

  200. Sahlin C, Sandberger O, Gustafson Y, Bucht G, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea is a risk factor for death in patients with stroke. Arch Intern Med 2008;168:297-301.

  201. Foster GE, Hanly PJ, Ostrowski M, Poulin MJ. Effects of continuous positive airway pressure on cerebral vascular response to hypoxia in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;175:720-725.

  202. Joo EY, Tae WS, Han SJ, Cho J, Hong SB. Reduced cerebral blood flow during wakefulness in obstructive sleep apneahypopnea syndrome. Sleep 2007;30:1515-1520.

  203. Hogan A, Hill CM, Harrison D, Kirkham FJ. Cerebral, blood flow velocity and cognition in children before and after adenotonsillectomy. Pediatrics 2008;122:75-82.

  204. Wassendorf TE, Wang YM, Thilman AF, Sorgenfrei U, Konietzko N, Teschler H. Treatment of obstructive sleep apnoea with nasal continuous positive airway pressure in stroke. Eur Respir J 2001;18:623-629.

  205. Börgel J, Sanner BM, Bittlinsky A, Keskin F, et al. Obstructive sleep apnoea and its therapy influence high-density lipoprotein cholesterol serum levels. Eur Respir J 2006;27:121-127.

  206. Harsch IA, Wallaschofski H, Koebnick C, Pour SS, et al. Adiponectin in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: course and physiological relevance. Respiration 2004;71:580-586.

  207. Chin K, Nakamura T, Takahashi K, Sumi K, et al. Effects of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome on serum aminotransferase levels in obese patients. Am J Med 2003;114:370-376.

  208. Tanne F, Gagnadoux F, Chazouillères, O, Fleury B, et al. Chronic liver injury during obstructive sleep apnea. Hepatology 2005;41:1290-1296.

  209. Verhulst SL, Jacobs S, Aerts L, Schrauwen N, et al. Sleepdisordered breathing: a new risk factor of suspected fatty liver disease in overweight children and adolescents? Sleep Breath. DOI:10.1007/s11325-008-0231-5.

  210. Polotsky VY, Patil SP, Savransky V, Laffan A, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea, insulin resistance and steatohepatitis in severe obesity. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008 article in press. Published on october 31, 2008 as doi:10.1164rccm.200804- 608OC. Downloaded November 2 2008.




2020     |     www.medigraphic.com