medigraphic.com

2006, Number 2

<< Back Next >>

Arch Cardiol Mex 2006; 76 (2)

Triggering of acute coronary syndromes. Pathophysiologic relationships

González PJA

Language: Spanish
References: 132
Page: 208-221
PDF size: 157.98 Kb.


ABSTRACT

In this review, the relationship of external triggers with the development of acute coronary syndromes is described. Based on current evidence, the pathophysiological mechanisms that probably result in the rupture of vulnerable coronary plaques are revised and preventive measures to stop the functional and lethal consequences of its occurrence are proposed.


REFERENCES

  1. MARTÍNEZ-GONZÁLEZ J, LLORENTE-CORTÉZ V, BADIMON L: Biología celular y molecular de las lesiones ateroscleróticas. Rev Esp Cardiol 2001; 54: 218-231.

  2. LIBBY P, RIDKER PM, MASERI A: Inflammation and atherosclerosis. Circulation 2002; 105: 1135-1143.

  3. BUFFON A, BIASUCCI LM, LLUSO G, D´ONOFRIO G, CREA F, MASERI A: Widespread coronary inflammation in unstable angina. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 5-12.

  4. TOFLER GH, STONE PH, MACLURE M, EDELMAN E, DAVIS VG, ROBERTSON T, ET AL: Analysis of possible triggers of acute myocardial infarction (The MILIS Study). Am J Cardiol 1990; 66: 22-27.

  5. SUMIYOSHI T, HAZE K, SAITO M, FUKAMI K, GOTO Y, HIRAMORI K: Evaluation of clinical factors involved in the onset of myocardial infarction. Jpn Circ J 1986; 50: 164-173.

  6. SMITH M, LITTLE WC: Potential precipitating factors of the onset of myocardial infarction. Am J Med Sci 1992; 303: 141-144.

  7. WILLICH SN, LEWIS M, LÖWEL H, ARNTZ H, SCHUBERT F, SCHRODER R, for The Triggers and Mechanisms of Myocardial Infarction Study Group: Physical exertion as a trigger of acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 1684-1690.

  8. MITTLEMAN MA, MACLURE M, TOFLER GH, SHERWOOD JB, GOLDBERG FJ, MULLER JE, for The Determinants of Myocardial Infarction Onset Study Investigators: Triggering of acute myocardial infarction by heavy physical exertion. Protection against triggering by regular exertion. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 1677-1683.

  9. MULLER J, WILLICH SN: Triggering of acute coronary syndromes. J Clin Basic Cardiol 2000; 3: 73-79.

  10. WANNAMETHEE G, SHAPER AG, MACFARLANE PW, WALKER M. Risk factors for sudden cardiac death in middle-aged British men. Circulation 1995; 91: 1749-1756.

  11. GIRI S, THOMPSON PD, KIERNAN FJ, CLIVE J, FRAM DB, MITCHELL JF, ET AL: Clinical and angiographic characteristics of exertion-related acute myocardial infarction. JAMA 1999; 282: 1731-1736 (Erratum, JAMA 1999; 282: 2124).

  12. MITTLEMAN MA, SISCOVICK DS: Physical exertion as a trigger of myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death. Cardiol Clin 1996; 14: 263-270.

  13. PFAFFENBARGER RS JR, HYDE RT, WING AI, LEE I, JUNG DL, KAMPERT JB: The association of changes in physical-activity level and other lifestyle characteristics with mortality among men. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 538-545.

  14. MYERS J, PRAKASH M, FROELICHER V, DO D, PARTINGTON S, ATWOOD E: Exercise capacity and mortality among men referred for exercise testing. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 793-801.

  15. JOLLIFE JA, REES K, TAYLOR RS, THOMPSON D, OLDRIDGE N, EBRAHIM S: Exercise based rehabilitation for coronary heart disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001; CD001800.

  16. SESSO HD, PFAFFENBARGER RS JR, LEE IM: Physical activity and coronary heart disease in men. The Harvard Alumni Health Study. Circulation 2000; 102: 975-980.

  17. MANSON JE, GREENLAND P, LACROIX AZ, STEFANIK ML, MOUTON CHP, OBERMAN A, ET AL: Walking compared with vigorous exercise for the prevention of cardiovascular events in women. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 716-725.

  18. ABETE P, FERRARA M, CACCIATORE F, SAGNELLI E, MANZI M, CARNOVALE V, ET AL: High level of physical activity preserves the cardioprotective effect of preinfarction angina in elderly patients. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001; 38: 1357-1365.

  19. BBC News, jul 09, 1992: Long hours linked to heart attacks.

  20. HEMINGWAY H, MARMOT H: Psychosocial factors in the aetiology and prognosis of coronary heart disease: systematic review of prospective cohort studies. BMJ 1999; 318: 1460-1467.

  21. WILLIAMS PB: Psychological factors in coronary heart disease: Epidemiological evidence. Circulation 1987; 76(Suppl I): I117-I123.

  22. KAWACHI I, COLDITZ GA, ASCHERIO A, RIMM EB, GIOVANNUCCI E, STAMPFER MJ, ET AL: Prospective study of phobic anxiety and risk of coronary heart disease in men. Circulation 1994; 89: 1992-1997.

  23. HAINES AP, IMESON JD, MEADE TW: Phobic anxiety and ischemic heart disease. BMJ 1987; 295: 297-299.

  24. HAINES A, COOPER J, MEADE TW: Psychological characteristics and fatal ischaemic heart disease. Heart 2001; 85: 385-389.

  25. PRATT LA, FORD DE, CRUM RM, ARMENIAN HK, GALLO JJ, EATON WW: Depression, psychotropic medication and risk of myocardial infarction. Prospective data from de Baltimore ECA followup. Circulation 1996; 94: 3123-3129.

  26. BAREFOOT JC, SCHROLL M: Symptoms of depression, acute myocardial and total mortality in a community sample. Circulation 1996; 93: 1976-1980.

  27. WASSERTHIEL-SMOLLER S, APPLEGATE WB, BERGE K, CHANG CHJ, DAVIS BR, GRIMM R, ET AL: Change in depression as a precursor of cardiovascular events. SHEP Cooperative Research Group (Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly). Arch Intern Med 1996; 156: 553-561.

  28. BLOM M, JANSZKY I, BALOG P, ORTH-GOMER K, WAMALA S: Social relations in women with coronary heart disease: the effects of work and marital stress. J Cardiovasc Risk 2003; 10: 201-206.

  29. ORTH-GOMER K, WAMALA SP, HORSTEN M: Marital stress worsens prognosis in women with coronary heart disease: The Stockholm Female Coronary Risk Study. JAMA 2003; 284: 3008-3014.

  30. MATTHEWS KA, GUMP BS: Chronic work stress and marital dissolution increase risk post-trial mortality in men from de Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162: 309-315.

  31. GALLO LC, TROXEL WM, KULLER LH, SUTTONTYRREL K, EDMUNDOWICZ D, MATTHEWS K: Marital status, marital quality, and atherosclerotic burden in postmenopausal women. Psychosom Med 2003; 65: 952-962.

  32. MULLER JE, MITTLEMAN MA, MACLURE M, SHERWOOD J, TOFLER GH: Triggering myocardial infarction by sexual activity. Low absolute risk and prevention by regular physical exertion. JAMA 1996; 275: 1405-9.

  33. FELDMAN HA, GOLDSTEIN I, HATZICHRISTOU DG, KRANE RJ, MCKINLAY JB: Impotence and its medical and psychosocial correlates: results of the Massachusetts Male Aging Study. J Urol 1994; 151: 54-61.

  34. ZUSMAN RM: Cardiovascular data on sildenafil citrate: Introduction. Am J Cardiol 1999; 83: 1C-2C.

  35. Estadísticas de mortalidad en México: muertes registradas en el año 2002. Salud Pública Mex 2004; 46: 169-185.

  36. INEGI. XI Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda,1990, y Conteo de Población y Vivienda, 1995.

  37. CHEITLIN MD, HUTTER AM, BRINDIS RG, GANZ P, KAUL S, RUSSELL RO, ET AL: ACC/AHA Expert Consensus Document. Use of Sildenafil (Viagra) in patients with cardiovascular disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999; 33: 273-282.

  38. Summary of Death Reports in Viagra received from marketing (late March) through June 1998. Washington, DC: Food and Drug Administration (Center of Drug Evaluation and Research); 1998.

  39. Viagra Deaths of Symptoms Leading to Death Occurring Within Tour to Five Hours. New York, NY. Pfizer Inc; 1998. Internal document.

  40. SUZUKI S, SAKAMOTO S, KOIDE M, FUJITA H, SAKURAMOTO H, KURODA T, ET AL: Hanshin-Awaji earthquake as a trigger for acute myocardial infarction. Am Heart J 1997; 134: 974-977.

  41. LEOR J, POOLE K, KLONER RA: Sudden cardiac deaths triggered by an earthquake. N Engl J Med 1996; 334: 413-419.

  42. KARIO K, OHASHI T, on behalf of the Tsuna Medical Association: Increased coronary heart disease mortality after the Hanshin-Awaji earthquake among the older community on Awaji Island. J Am Geriat Soc 1997; 45: 610-613.

  43. KLONER RA, LEOR J, POOLE WK, PERRIT R: Population-based analysis of the effects of the Northridge earthquake on cardiac death in Los Angeles County, California. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997; 30: 1174-1180.

  44. KARIO K: Does earthquake-induced cardiovascular disease persist or is it suppressed after the major quake? (letter). J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 32: 553-554.

  45. BROWN DL: Disparate effects of the 1989 Loma Prieta and 1994 Northridge earthquakes on admissions for acute myocardial infarction: the importance of trigger time (abstr). Circulation 1997; 96 Suppl: I-291.

  46. MULLER JE, LUDMER PL, WILLICH SN, TOFLER GH, AYLMER G, KLANGOS I, ET AL: Circadian variation in the frequency of sudden cardiac death. Circulation 1987; 75: 131-138.

  47. MEISEL SR, KUTZ I, DAYAN KI, PAUZNER H, CHETBOUN I, ARBEL Y, ET AL: Effect of iraqui missile war on incidence of acute myocardial infarction and sudden death in Israeli civilians. Lancet 1991; 338: 660-661.

  48. KARK JD, GOLDMAN S, EPSTEIN L: Iraqui missile attacks on Israel. The association of mortality with a life-threatening stressor. JAMA 1995; 273: 1208-12.

  49. SCHWARTZ J: Air pollution and daily mortality: a review and meta-analysis. Environ Res 1994; 64: 36-52.

  50. SCHWARTZ J: Air pollution and hospital admissions for cardiovascular disease in Tucson. Epidemiology 1997; 8: 371-377.

  51. KATSOUYANNI K, TOULOUMI G, SPIX C, SCHWARTZ J, BALDUCCI F, MEDINA S, ET AL: Short-term effects of ambient sulphur dioxide and particulate matters on mortality in 12 European cities: results from a time series data from the APHEA project. BMJ 1997; 314: 1658-63.

  52. MORGAN G, CORBETT S, WLODARCZYK J, LEWIS P: Air pollution and daily mortality in Sydney, Australia, 1989 through 1993. Am J Public Health 1998; 88: 759-764.

  53. SCHWARTZ J, MORRIS R: Air pollution and hospital admissions for cardiovascular disease in Detroit, Michigan. Am J Epidemiol 1995; 142: 23-35.

  54. ABURTO V, LOOMIS O, BANGDIWALA S, SHY C, RASCÓN-PACHECO R: Ozone suspended particulates, and daily mortality in Mexico City. Am J Epidemiol 1997; 145: 258-268.

  55. RUIDAVETS J-B, COURNOT M, CASSADOU S, GIROUX M, MEYBECK M, FARRIÈRES J, ET AL: Ozone air pollution is associated with acute myocardial infarction. Circulation 2005; 111: 563-569.

  56. PETERS A, VON KLOT S, HEIER M, TRENTINAGLIA I, HÖRMAN A, WICHMANN E, ET AL: Exposure to traffic and the onset of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1721-1730.

  57. STONE PH: Triggering myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1716-1718.

  58. BROOK RD, FRANKLIN B, CASCIO W, HONG Y, HOWARD G, LIPSETT M, ET AL: Air pollution and cardiovascular disease: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Expert Panel on Population and Prevention Science of the American Heart Association. Circulation 2004; 109: 2655-2671.

  59. TOSTESON DC, GREENBAUM DS. Letter. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 623.

  60. BURKE AP, FARB A, MALCOM GT, LIANG Y, SMIALEK J, VIRMANI R: Coronary risk factors and plaque morphology in men with coronary disease who died suddenly. N Engl J Med 1997; 336: 1312-1314.

  61. BOLINDER G, ALFREDSSON L, ENGLUND A, DEFAIRE U: Smokeless tobacco use and increased cardiovascular mortality. Am J Public Health 1994; 84: 399-404.

  62. HUHTASAARI F, LUNDBERG V, ELIASSON M, JANLERT U, ASPLUND K: Smokeless tobacco as a possible risk factor for myocardial infarction: a population-based study in middle-aged men. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999; 34: 1784-1790.

  63. BENOWITZ NL: Snuff, nicotine and cardiovascular disease: implications for tobacco control. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999; 34: 1791-1793.

  64. FERNÁNDEZ CC, GONZÁLEZ CV, LUQUE CA, SÁNCHEZ DC: Análisis de 1,030 casos de cardiopatía isquémica. Aspectos clínico-demográficos. Rev Mex Cardiol 1992; 3: 118-122.

  65. MULLER JE, STONE PH, TURI ZG, RUTHERFORD JD, CZEISLER CA, PARKER C, ET AL: Circadian variation in the frequency of onset of acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1985; 313: 1315-1322.

  66. CANNON CP, MCGABE CH, STONE PH, SCHACTMAN M, THOMPSON B, THEROUX P, ET AL: Circadian variation in the onset of unstable angina and nonQ-wave acute myocardial infarction (the TIMI III registry and TIMI III B). Am J Cardiol 1997; 79: 253-259.

  67. SAYER JW, WILKINSON P, RANJADALAYAN K, RAY S, MARCHANT B, TIMMIS A: Attenuation or absence of circadian and seasonal rhythms of acute myocardial infarction. Heart 1997; 77: 325-329.

  68. COHEN MC, ROHTLA KM, LAVERY CE, MULLER JE, MITTLEMAN MA: Meta-analysis of the morning excess of acute myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death. Am J Cardiol 1997; 79: 1512-1516.

  69. WILLICH SN, LINDERER T, WEGSCHEIDER K, LEIZOROVICZ A, ALAMERCERY I, SCHRODER R: Increased morning incidence of myocardial infarction in the ISAM study: absence with prior beta-adrenergic blockade. Circulation 1989; 80: 853-858.

  70. ISIS-2 (Second International Study of Infarct Survival) Collaborative Group: Morning peak in the incidence of myocardial infarction: experience in the ISIS-2 trial. Eur Heart J 1992; 13: 594-598.

  71. KONO T, MORITA H, NISHINA T, FUJITA M, HIROTA Y, KAWAMURA K, ET AL: Circadian variations of onset of acute myocardial infarction and efficacy of the thrombolytic treatment. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996; 27: 774-778.

  72. HANSEN O, JOHANSEN BW, GULLBERG B: Circadian distribution of onset of acute myocardial infarction in subgroups from analysis of 10,791 patients treated in a single center. Am J Cardiol 1992; 69: 1003-1008.

  73. VAN DER PALEN JM, DOGGEN CJ, BEAGLEHOLE R: Variation in the time and day of onset of myocardial infarction and sudden cardiac death. NZ Med J 1995; 108: 332-334.

  74. KRANTS DS, KOP WJ, GABBAY FH: Circadian variation of ambulatory myocardial ischemia. Triggering by daily activities and evidence for an endogenous circadian component. Circulation 1996; 93: 1364-1371.

  75. WILLICH SN, LEVY D, ROCCO MB, TOFLER GM, STONE PH, MULLER JE: Circadian variation in the incidence of sudden cardiac death in the Framingham Heart Study population. Am J Cardiol 1987; 60: 801-806.

  76. PETERS RW, MITCHELL RB, BROOKS MM, ECHT DS, BARKER AH, CAPONE R, ET AL: Circadian pattern of arrhythmic death in patients receiving encainide, flecainide or moricizine in the Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST). J Am Coll Cardiol 1994; 23: 283-289.

  77. HAUSMAN D, TRAPPE HJ, BARGHEER K, DANIEL WG, WENZLAFF P, LICHTLEN PR: Circadian variation of ventricular tachycardia in patients after myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 1992; 19: 368A.

  78. ARNTZ HR, WILLICH SN, OEFF M, BRUGGEMANN T, STERN R, HEINZMANN A, ET AL: Circadian variation of sudden cardiac death reflects age-related variability in ventricular fibrillation. Circulation 1993; 88: 2284-2289.

  79. BEHAR S, HALABI M, REICHERA-REISS H, ZION M, KAPLINZKY E, GOLDBOURT U: Circadian variation and possible external triggers of onset of myocardial infarction. SPRINT Study Group. Am J Med 1993; 94: 395-400.

  80. ARNTZ HR, MULLER J, WILLICH SN: Cold Monday mornings prove dangerous: epidemiology of sudden cardiac death. Curr Op Crit Care 2001; 7: 139-144.

  81. WILLICH SN, LOWEL H, LEWIS M, HORMANN A, ARNTZ HR, KEIL U: Weekly variation of acute myocardial infarction. Increased Monday risk in the working population. Circulation 1994; 90: 87-93.

  82. MARCHANT B, RANJADAYALAN K, STEVENSON R, WILKINSON P, TIMMIS AD: Circadian and seasonal factors in the pathogenesis of acute myocardial infarction: the influence of environmental temperature. Br Heart J 1993; 69: 385-387.

  83. SPENCER FA, GOLDBERG RJ, BECKER RC, GORE JM: Seasonal distribution of acute myocardial infarction in the Second National Registry of Myocardial Infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 31: 1226-1233.

  84. GONZÁLEZ HE, CABADÉS OA, CEBRIÁN DJ, LÓPEZ MB, SANJUÁN MR, ECHÁNOVE EI, ET AL: Variaciones estacionales en los ingresos por infarto agudo del miocardio. El estudio PRIMVAC. Rev Esp Cardiol 2004; 57: 12-19.

  85. GABBAY FH, KRANTZ DS, KOP WJ, HEDGES SM, KLEIN J, GOTTDIENER JS, ET AL: Triggers of myocardial ischemia during daily life in patients with coronary artery disease: physical and mental activities, anger and smoking. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996; 27: 585-592.

  86. MEADE TW, IMESON J, STIRLING Y: Effects of changes in smoking and other characteristics on clotting factors and the risk of ischaemic heart disease. Lancet 1987; 2: 986-988.

  87. BENOWITZ NL, FITZGERALD GA, WILSON M, ZHANG QI: Nicotine effects on eicosanoid formation and hemostatic function: comparison of transdermal nicotine and cigarette smoking. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993; 22: 1159-1167.

  88. JERN C, ERIKSON E, TENGBORN L, RISBERT B, WADENVIK H, JERN S: Changes of plasma coagulation and fibrinolysis in response to mental stress. Thromb Haemost 1989; 62: 767-771.

  89. DAVIES MJ, THOMAS AC: Plaque fissuring – the cause of myocardial infarction, sudden ischemic death, and crescendo angina. Br Heart J 1985; 53: 363-373.

  90. WAXMAN S, MULLER JE: Risk factors for an acute ischemic event. En: Braunwald E, Califf RM (eds.). Atlas of heart diseases. Acute myocardial infarction and other acute ischemic syndromes. 2nd Ed. Philadelphia. Current Medicine, 2001: 21-35.

  91. SHAH PK: Plaque disruption and coronary thrombosis: new insight into pathogenesis and prevention. Clin Cardiol 1997; 20(Suppl 2): II38-II44.

  92. STEIN PD, HAMID MS, SHIVKUMAR K, DAVIS TP, KHAJA F, HENRY JW: Effects of cyclic flexion of coronary arteries on progression of atherosclerosis. Am J Cardiol 1994; 73: 431-437.

  93. DOUSTE-BLAZY P, SIE P, BONEU B, MARCO J, ECHE N, BERNADET P: Exercise-induced platelet activation in myocardial infarction survivors with normal coronary arteriogram. Thromb Haemostas 1984; 52: 297-300.

  94. KESTIN AS, ELLIS PA, BARNARD MR, ERRICHETTI A, ROSNER BA, MICHELSON AD: Effect of strenuous exercise on platelet activation state and reactivity. Circulation 1993; 88: 1502-1511.

  95. LEVIN SP, TOWELL BL, SUAREZ AM, KNIERIEM LK, HARRIS MM, GEORGE JN: Platelet activation and secretion associated with emotional stress. Circulation 1985; 71: 1129-1134.

  96. FLETCHER GF, BALADY GT, AMSTERDAM EA, CHAITMAN B, ECKEL R, FLEG J, ET AL: Exercise standards for testing and training: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2001; 104: 1694-1740.

  97. BORAITA A: La práctica deportiva mejora el perfil lipídico plasmático, pero ¿a cualquier intensidad? Rev Esp Cardiol 2004; 57: 495-498.

  98. THOMPSON PD, CROUSE SF, GOODPASTER B, KELLEY D, MOYNA N, PESCATELLO L: The acute versus the chronic response to exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33:Suppl: S438-S445.

  99. BALADY GJ: Survival of the fittest –more evidence. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 852-854.

  100. RAURAMAA R, SALONEN JT, SEPPANEN K, SALONEN R, VENALAINEN JM, IHANAINEN M, ET AL: Inhibition of platelet aggregability by moderate-intensity physical exercise; a randomized clinical trial in overweight men. Circulation 1986; 74: 939-944.

  101. SMITH JK, DYKES R, DOUGLAS JE, KRISHNASWAMY G, BERK S. Long-term exercise and atherogenic activity of blood mononuclear cells in persons at risk of developing ischemic heart disease. JAMA 1999; 281: 1722-1727.

  102. WINTHER K, HILLEGRASS W, TOFLER GH, JIMENEZ A, BREZINSKI DA, SCHAFER A, ET AL: Effects on platelet aggregation and fibrinolytic activity during upright posture and exercise in healthy men. Am J Cardiol 1992; 70: 1051-1055.

  103. KAWACHI I, SPARROW D, VOKONAS PS, WEISS ST: Decreased heart rate variability in men with phobic anxiety. Am J Cardiol 1995; 75: 882-885.

  104. BOLTWOOD MD, BARR TAYLOR C, BOUTTE´ BURKE M, GROGIN H, GIACOMINI J: Anger report predicts coronary artery vasomotor response to mental stress in artherosclerotic segments. Am J Cardiol 1993; 72: 1361-1365.

  105. BURG MM, JAIN D, SOUFIER R, KERNS RD, ZARET BL: Role of behavioral and psychological factors in mental stress induced left ventricular dysfunction in coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993; 22: 440-448.

  106. PITZALIS MV, IACOVIELLO M, TODARELLO O, FIORETTI A, GUIDA P, MASSARI F, ET AL: Depression but not anxiety influence the autonomic control of heart rate after myocardial infarction. Am Heart J 2001; 141: 765-771.

  107. SCHINS A, HONIG A, CRIJNS H, BAUR L, HAMULYAK K: Increased coronary events in depressed cardiovascular patients: 5-HT2A receptor as missing link? Psychosom Med 2003; 65: 729-737.

  108. FENG CJ, TOFLER GH: Diurnal physiological processes and circadian variation of acute myocardial infarction. J Cardiovasc Risk 1995; 2: 494-498.

  109. ANDREOTTI F, KLUFT C, DAVIES GJ, HUISMAN LG, DE BART AC, MASERI A: Effect of propranolol (longacting) on the circadian fluctuation of tissue-plasminogen activator and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1. Am J Cardiol 1991; 68: 1295-1299.

  110. KURNIK RP: Circadian variation in the efficacy of tissue-type plasminogen activator. Circulation 1995; 91: 1341-1346.

  111. PETERS A, DORING A, WICHMANN HE, KOENIG W: Increased plasma viscosity during an air pollution episode: a link to mortality? Lancet 1997; 349: 1582-1587.

  112. MEANEY E, RIVERA JM, SCHUCHLEIB R, GÓMEZ AE: Aterosclerosis y sus precursores (B-4). Programa de actualización continua para el cardiólogo. Intersistemas. México, 1998: 41-44.

  113. PENN A, ZINDER CA: 1,3 Butadiene, a vapor phase component of environmental tobacco smoke, accelerates artherosclerotic plaque development. Circulation 1997; 93: 275-276.

  114. SMITH CJ, FISCHER TH: Particulate and vapor phase constituents of cigarette mainstream smoke and risk of myocardial infarction. Atherosclerosis 2001; 158: 257-267.

  115. BENOWITZ NL, GOURLAY SG: Cardiovascular toxicity of nicotine: implications for nicotine replacement therapy. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997; 29: 1422-1431.

  116. WENNMALM A, BENTHIN G, GRANSTRÖM EF, PERSSON L, PETERSSON AS, WINELL S: Relation between tobacco use and urinary excretion of thromboxane A2 and prostacyclin metabolites in young men. Circulation 1991; 83: 1698-1704.

  117. Working Group for the Study of Transdermal Nicotine in Patients with Coronary Artery Disease. Nicotine replacement therapy for patients with coronary artery disease. Arch Intern Med 1994; 154: 989-995.

  118. MURRAY RP, BAILEY WC, DANIELS K, BJORNSON WM, KURNOW K, KONNETT J, ET AL: Safety of nicotin polacrilex gum used by 3,094 participants in the Lung Health Study. Chest 1996; 109: 438-445.

  119. MAHMARIAN JJ, MOYÉ LA, NASSER GA, NAGUEH SF, BLOOM MF, BENOWITZ NL, ET AL: Nicotine patch therapy in smoking cessation reduces the extent of exercise-induced myocardial ischemia. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997; 30: 125-130.

  120. BARUA RS, AMBROSE JA, EALES-REYNOLDS LJ, DEVOE MC, ZERVAS JG, SAHA DC: Heavy and light cigarette smokers have similar dysfunction of endothelial vasoregulatory activity. An in vivo and in vitro correlation. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002; 39: 1758-1763.

  121. MCGILL HC: The cardiovascular pathology of smoking. Am Heart J 1988; 115: 250-257.

  122. 27th Bethesda Conference. Matching the intensity of risk factor management with the hazard for coronary disease events. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996; 27: 957-1047.

  123. BETANCOURT L, NAVARRO RJ: Tabaquismo. Panorama general y perspectivas. Rev Mex Cardiol 2001; 12: 85-93.

  124. YEH CJ, CHAN P, PAN WH: Values of blood coagulation factors vary with ambient temperature: the Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factor TwoTownship Study in Taiwan. Chin J Physiol 1996; 39: 111-116.

  125. THOMPSON PD: Additional steps for cardiovascular health. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 755-756.

  126. ROZANSKI A, BLUMENTHAL JA, DAVIDSON KW, SAAB PG, KUBZANSKY L: The epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management of psychosocial risk factors in cardiac practice. The emerging field of Behavioral Cardiology. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005; 45: 637-651.

  127. CANALE JM, BUSTAMANTE F: Uso de sildenafil en hombres con cardiopatía coronaria: consideraciones clínicas y epidemiológicas. Rev Mex Cardiol 1999; 10: 85-89.

  128. ANTMAN EM, ANBE DT, ARMSTRONG PW, BATES ER, GREEN LA, HAND M, ET AL: ACC/AHA guidelines for the management of patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee to revise the 1999 Guidelines for the Management of patients with Acute Myocardial Infarction). 2004 update;http://www.acc.org/clinical/statements.htm

  129. BRAUNWALD E, ANTMAN EM, BEASLEY JW, CALIFF RM, CHEITLIN MD, HOCHMAN JS, ET AL: ACC/AHA 2002 guideline update for the management of the patients with unstable angina and non-STsegment elevation myocardial infarction: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on the Management of patients with Unstable Angina). 2002 update;http://www.acc.org/clinical/statements.htm

  130. RIDKER PM, MANSON JE, BURING JE, MULLER JE, HENNEKENS CH: Circadian variation of acute myocardial infarction and the effect of low-dose aspirin in a randomized trial of physicians. Circulation 1990; 82: 897-902.

  131. HUNG J, LAM JY, LACOSTE L, LETCHACOVSKI G: Cigarette smoking acutely increases platelet thrombus formation in patients with coronary artery disease taking aspirin. Circulation 1995; 92: 2432-2436.

  132. SMITH SC, BLAIR SN, BONOW RO, BRASS LM, CERQUEIRA MD, DRACUP K, ET AL: AHA/ACC guidelines for preventing heart attack and death in patients with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: 2001 update. A statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association and the American College of Cardiology. Circulation 2001; 104: 1577-1579.




2020     |     www.medigraphic.com