medigraphic.com
Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública

2016, Number 2

<< Back Next >>

salud publica mex 2016; 58 (2)

The role of diet in cancer: the epidemiologic link

Stepien M, Chajes V, Romieu I

Language: English
References: 110
Page: 261-273
PDF size: 293.39 Kb.


ABSTRACT

Diet is an important modifiable risk factor for cancer. Adequate diet modification may play a key role in reducing the incidence of some cancers. A growing body of epidemiological evidence suggested links of some nutritional exposures with individual cancers. This review updates and summarises the existing data on diet related factors for cancer prevention, evaluated in 2007 by World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research and identifies the areas where more research is needed. Mechanisms of action of nutrients are discussed. For cancer prevention, more apparent association pertains to the role of foods from plant origin, processed meat products and alcohol. There is a lack of evidence to clarify the relationship of dairy and cereal products, different types of carbohydrates, micronutrients naturally found in foods vs supplements, industrial trans-fats, food preparation and handling techniques and dietary patterns and cancer, in order to implement safe cancer prevention strategies.


REFERENCES

  1. Doll R, Peto R. The causes of cancer: quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today. J Natl Cancer Inst 1981;66(6):1191-1308.

  2. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective. Washington DC: World Cancer Research Fund, 2007.

  3. WCRF/AICR. Continous Update Project findings & reports [internet document]. Washington DC: WCRF/AICR, 2010-1015 [accessed: July 1, 2015]. Avilable at: http://www.wcrf.org/int/research-we-fund/continuousupdate- project-findings-reports.

  4. Globocan. Estimated age-standardised incidence and mortality rates: both sexes [internet document]. Lyon: Globocan, 2012 [accessed: July 1, 2015]. Avilable at: http://globocan.iarc.fr/Pages/fact_sheets_population.aspx

  5. Riboli E, Norat T. Epidemiologic evidence of the protective effect of fruit and vegetables on cancer risk. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;78(3 suppl):559S-569S.

  6. Wang M, Qin S, Zhang T, Song X, Zhang S. The effect of fruit and vegetable intake on the development of lung cancer: a meta-analysis of 32 publications and 20 414 cases. Eur J Clin Nutr 2015:1-9.

  7. Xue XJ, Gao Q, Qiao JH, Zhang J, Xu CP, Liu J. Red and processed meat consumption and the risk of lung cancer: a dose-response meta-analysis of 33 published studies. Int J Clin Exp Med 2014;7(6):1542-1553.

  8. Chiavarini M, Minelli L, Fabiani R. Garlic consumption and colorectal cancer risk in man: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Public Health Nutr 2015:1-10.

  9. Ralston RA, Truby H, Palermo CE, Walker KZ. Colorectal cancer and nonfermented milk, solid cheese, and fermented milk consumption: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2014;54(9):1167-1179.

  10. Chan DS, Lau R, Aune D, Vieira R, Greenwood DC, Kampman E, et al. Red and processed meat and colorectal cancer incidence: meta-analysis of prospective studies. PloS One 2011;6(6):e20456.

  11. Aune D, Chan DS, Vieira AR, Navarro-Rosenblatt DA, Vieira R, Greenwood DC, et al. Red and processed meat intake and risk of colorectal adenomas: a systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Cancer Causes Control 2013;24(4):611-627.

  12. Xu X, Yu E, Gao X, Song N, Liu L, Wei X, et al. Red and processed meat intake and risk of colorectal adenomas: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Int J Cancer 2013;132(2):437-448.

  13. Wang Q, Chen Y, Wang X, Gong G, Li G, Li C. Consumption of fruit, but not vegetables, may reduce risk of gastric cancer: results from a metaanalysis of cohort studies. Eur J Cancer 2014;50(8):1498-1509.

  14. Zhou Y, Zhuang W, Hu W, Liu GJ, Wu TX, Wu XT. Consumption of large amounts of Allium vegetables reduces risk for gastric cancer in a metaanalysis. Gastroenterology 2011;141(1):80-89.

  15. Song P, Lu M, Yin Q, Wu L, Zhang D, Fu B, et al. Red meat consumption and stomach cancer risk: a meta-analysis. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2014;140(6):979-992.

  16. Bravi F, Bosetti C, Tavani A, Gallus S, La Vecchia C. Coffee reduces risk for hepatocellular carcinoma: an updated meta-analysis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013;11(11):1413-1421.

  17. Sang LX, Chang B, Li XH, Jiang M. Consumption of coffee associated with reduced risk of liver cancer: a meta-analysis. BMC Gastroenterol 2013;13:34.

  18. Yang TO, Crowe F, Cairns BJ, Reeves GK, Beral V. Tea and coffee and risk of endometrial cancer: cohort study and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 2015;101(3):570-578.

  19. Choi Y, Song S, Song Y, Lee JE. Consumption of red and processed meat and esophageal cancer risk: meta-analysis. World J Gastroenterol 2013;19(7):1020-1029.

  20. Zhu HC, Yang X, Xu LP, Zhao LJ, Tao GZ, Zhang C, et al. Meat consumption is associated with esophageal cancer risk in a meat- and cancerhistological- type dependent manner. Dig Dis Sci 2014;59(3):664-673.

  21. Salehi M, Moradi-Lakeh M, Salehi MH, Nojomi M, Kolahdooz F. Meat, fish, and esophageal cancer risk: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Nutr Rev 2013;71(5):257-267.

  22. Li B, Jiang G, Zhang G, Xue Q, Zhang H, Wang C, et al. Intake of vegetables and fruit and risk of esophageal adenocarcinoma: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Eur J Nutr 2014;53(7):1511-1521.

  23. Huang W, Han Y, Xu J, Zhu W, Li Z. Red and processed meat intake and risk of esophageal adenocarcinoma: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Cancer Causes Control 2013;24(1):193-201.

  24. Liu J, Wang J, Leng Y, Lv C. Intake of fruit and vegetables and risk of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Int J Cancer 2013;133(2):473-485.

  25. Qu X, Ben Q, Jiang Y. Consumption of red and processed meat and risk for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma based on a meta-analysis. Ann Epidemiol 2013;23(12):762-770.

  26. Mao QQ, Dai Y, Lin YW, Qin J, Xie LP, Zheng XY. Milk consumption and bladder cancer risk: a meta-analysis of published epidemiological studies. Nutr Cancer 2011;63(8):1263-1271.

  27. Li F, An SL, Zhou Y, Liang ZK, Jiao ZJ, Jing YM, et al. Milk and dairy consumption and risk of bladder cancer: a meta-analysis. Urology 2011;78(6):1298-1305.

  28. Larsson SC, Wolk A. Red and processed meat consumption and risk of pancreatic cancer: meta-analysis of prospective studies. Br J Cancer 2012;106(3):603-607.

  29. Aune D, Chan DS, Lau R, Vieira R, Greenwood DC, Kampman E, et al. Carbohydrates, glycemic index, glycemic load, and colorectal cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Cancer Causes Control 2012;23(4):521-535.

  30. Ruder EH, Thiebaut AC, Thompson FE, Potischman N, Subar AF, Park Y, et al. Adolescent and mid-life diet: risk of colorectal cancer in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2011;94(6):1607- 1619.

  31. Vogtmann E, Xiang YB, Li HL, Levitan EB, Yang G, Waterbor JW, et al. Fruit and vegetable intake and the risk of colorectal cancer: results from the Shanghai Men’s Health Study. Cancer Causes Control 2013;24(11):1935-1945.

  32. Leenders M, Siersema PD, Overvad K, Tjonneland A, Olsen A, Boutron- Ruault MC, et al. Subtypes of fruit and vegetables, variety in consumption and risk of colon and rectal cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. International J Cancer 2015/06/17 [E-pub ahead of print]

  33. Boffetta P, Couto E, Wichmann J, Ferrari P, Trichopoulos D, Bueno-de- Mesquita HB, et al. Fruit and vegetable intake and overall cancer risk in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). J Natl Cancer Inst 2010;102(8):529-537.

  34. Bradbury KE, Appleby PN, Key TJ. Fruit, vegetable, and fiber intake in relation to cancer risk: findings from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Am J Clin Nutr 2014;100 Suppl 1:394S-398S.

  35. Gallicchio L, Boyd K, Matanoski G, Tao XG, Chen L, Lam TK, et al. Carotenoids and the risk of developing lung cancer: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;88(2):372-383.

  36. O’Brien PJ. Antioxidants and cancer: molecular mechanisms. Adv Exp Med Biol 1994;366:215-239.

  37. Zeng H, Lazarova DL, Bordonaro M. Mechanisms linking dietary fiber, gut microbiota and colon cancer prevention. World J Gastrointest Oncol 2014;6(2):41-51.

  38. Aune D, Chan DS, Lau R, Vieira R, Greenwood DC, Kampman E, et al. Dietary fibre, whole grains, and risk of colorectal cancer: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. BMJ 2011;343:d6617.

  39. Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, Balmes J, Cullen MR, Meyskens FL, Jr., Omenn GS, et al. The Beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial: incidence of lung cancer and cardiovascular disease mortality during 6-year followup after stopping beta-carotene and retinol supplements. J Natl Cancer Inst 2004;96(23):1743-1750.

  40. Albanes D, Heinonen OP, Taylor PR, Virtamo J, Edwards BK, Rautalahti M, et al. Alpha-Tocopherol and beta-carotene supplements and lung cancer incidence in the alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene cancer prevention study: effects of base-line characteristics and study compliance. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996;88(21):1560-1570.

  41. Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Simonetti RG, Gluud C. Antioxidant supplements for preventing gastrointestinal cancers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008(3):CD004183.

  42. Bravi F, Scotti L, Bosetti C, Gallus S, Negri E, La Vecchia C, et al. Coffee drinking and endometrial cancer risk: a metaanalysis of observational studies. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009;200(2):130-135.

  43. Je Y, Giovannucci E. Coffee consumption and risk of endometrial cancer: findings from a large up-to-date meta-analysis. Int J Cancer 2012;131(7):1700-1710.

  44. Larsson SC, Wolk A. Coffee consumption and risk of liver cancer: a meta-analysis. Gastroenterology 2007;132(5):1740-1745.

  45. Bamia C, Lagiou P, Jenab M, Trichopoulou A, Fedirko V, Aleksandrova K, et al. Coffee, tea and decaffeinated coffee in relation to hepatocellular carcinoma in a European population: multicentre, prospective cohort study. Int J Cancer 2015;136(8):1899-1908.

  46. Yu X, Bao Z, Zou J, Dong J. Coffee consumption and risk of cancers: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. BMC Cancer 2011;11:96.

  47. Bohn SK, Blomhoff R, Paur I. Coffee and cancer risk, epidemiological evidence, and molecular mechanisms. Mol Nutr Food Res 2014;58(5):915-930.

  48. Kotsopoulos J, Eliassen AH, Missmer SA, Hankinson SE, Tworoger SS. Relationship between caffeine intake and plasma sex hormone concentrations in premenopausal and postmenopausal women. Cancer 2009;115(12):2765-2774.

  49. Ferrini RL, Barrett-Connor E. Caffeine intake and endogenous sex steroid levels in postmenopausal women. The Rancho Bernardo Study. Am J Epidemiol 1996;144(7):642-644.

  50. Rossi T, Gallo C, Bassani B, Canali S, Albini A, Bruno A. Drink your prevention: beverages with cancer preventive phytochemicals. Pol Arch Med Wewn 2014;124(12):713-722.

  51. Tunnicliffe JM, Shearer J. Coffee, glucose homeostasis, and insulin resistance: physiological mechanisms and mediators. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2008;33(6):1290-1300.

  52. Loftfield E, Shiels MS, Graubard BI, Katki HA, Chaturvedi AK, Trabert B, et al. Associations of Coffee Drinking with Systemic Immune and Inflammatory Markers. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention: A Publication Of The American Association For Cancer Research, Cosponsored By The American Society Of Preventive Oncology 2015;24(7):1052-1060.

  53. Aune D, Lau R, Chan DS, Vieira R, Greenwood DC, Kampman E, et al. Dairy products and colorectal cancer risk: a systematic review and metaanalysis of cohort studies. Ann Oncol 2012;23(1):37-45.

  54. Huncharek M, Muscat J, Kupelnick B. Colorectal cancer risk and dietary intake of calcium, vitamin D, and dairy products: a meta-analysis of 26,335 cases from 60 observational studies. Nutr Cancer 2009;61(1):47-69.

  55. Cho E, Smith-Warner SA, Spiegelman D, Beeson WL, van den Brandt PA, Colditz GA, et al. Dairy foods, calcium, and colorectal cancer: a pooled analysis of 10 cohort studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 2004;96(13):1015-1022.

  56. Lamprecht SA, Lipkin M. Cellular mechanisms of calcium and vitamin D in the inhibition of colorectal carcinogenesis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001;952:73-87.

  57. Hill DR, Newburg DS. Clinical applications of bioactive milk components. Nutr Rev 2015;73(7):463-476.

  58. Duarte-Salles T, Fedirko V, Stepien M, Trichopoulou A, Bamia C, Lagiou P, et al. Dairy products and risk of hepatocellular carcinoma: the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Int J Cancer 2014;135(7):1662-1672.

  59. Tao ZQ, Shi AM, Wang KX, Zhang WD. Epidemiology of prostate cancer: current status. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2015;19(5):805-812.

  60. Renehan AG, Zwahlen M, Minder C, O’Dwyer ST, Shalet SM, Egger M. Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, IGF binding protein-3, and cancer risk: systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Lancet 2004;363(9418):1346-1353.

  61. Rinaldi S, Cleveland R, Norat T, Biessy C, Rohrmann S, Linseisen J, et al. Serum levels of IGF-I, IGFBP-3 and colorectal cancer risk: results from the EPIC cohort, plus a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Int J Cancer 2010;126(7):1702-1715.

  62. Scoccianti C, Cecchini M, Anderson AS, Berrino F, Boutron-Ruault MC, Espina C, et al. European Code against Cancer 4th Edition: Alcohol drinking and cancer. Cancer Epidemiol 2015 Jun 24 [Epub ahead of print].

  63. Scoccianti C, Lauby-Secretan B, Bello PY, Chajes V, Romieu I. Female breast cancer and alcohol consumption: a review of the literature. Am J Prev Med 2014;46(3 Suppl 1):S16-S25.

  64. Suzuki R, Orsini N, Mignone L, Saji S, Wolk A. Alcohol intake and risk of breast cancer defined by estrogen and progesterone receptor status--a meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Int J Cancer 2008;122(8):1832-1841.

  65. Romieu I, Scoccianti C, Chajes V, de Batlle J, Biessy C, Dossus L, et al. Alcohol intake and breast cancer in the European Prospective investigation into Cancer and Nutrition: Short title: Alcohol intake and breast cancer: Alcohol intake and breast cancer. Int J Cancer 2015;137(8):1921-1930.

  66. Bagnardi V, Rota M, Botteri E, Tramacere I, Islami F, Fedirko V, et al. Light alcohol drinking and cancer: a meta-analysis. Ann Oncol 2013;24(2):301-308.

  67. Baan R, Straif K, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Bouvard V, et al. Carcinogenicity of alcoholic beverages. Lancet Oncol 2007;8(4):292-293.

  68. Seitz HK, Mueller S. Alcohol and cancer: an overview with special emphasis on the role of acetaldehyde and cytochrome P450 2E1. Adv Exp Med Biol 2015;815:59-70.

  69. Giovannucci E. Alcohol, one-carbon metabolism, and colorectal cancer: recent insights from molecular studies. J Nutr 2004;134(9):2475S-2481S.

  70. Huxley RR, Ansary-Moghaddam A, Clifton P, Czernichow S, Parr CL, Woodward M. The impact of dietary and lifestyle risk factors on risk of colorectal cancer: a quantitative overview of the epidemiological evidence. Int J Cancer 2009;125(1):171-180.

  71. Larsson SC, Wolk A. Meat consumption and risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Int J Cancer 2006;119(11):2657-2664.

  72. Norat T, Lukanova A, Ferrari P, Riboli E. Meat consumption and colorectal cancer risk: dose-response meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Int J Cancer 2002;98(2):241-256.

  73. Sandhu MS, White IR, McPherson K. Systematic review of the prospective cohort studies on meat consumption and colorectal cancer risk: a meta-analytical approach. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2001;10(5):439-446.

  74. Smolinska K, Paluszkiewicz P. Risk of colorectal cancer in relation to frequency and total amount of red meat consumption. Systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Med Sci 2010;6(4):605-610.

  75. Alexander DD, Weed DL, Miller PE, Mohamed MA. Red Meat and Colorectal Cancer: A Quantitative Update on the State of the Epidemiologic Science. J Am Coll Nutr 2015:1-23.

  76. Alexander DD, Weed DL, Cushing CA, Lowe KA. Meta-analysis of prospective studies of red meat consumption and colorectal cancer. Eur J Cancer Prev 2011;20(4):293-307.

  77. Chiang VS, Quek SY. The Relationship of Red Meat with Cancer: Effects of Thermal Processing and Related Physiological Mechanisms. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2015 Jun 15:0 [Epub ahead of print].

  78. D’Elia L, Rossi G, Ippolito R, Cappuccio FP, Strazzullo P. Habitual salt intake and risk of gastric cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Clin Nutr 2012;31(4):489-498.

  79. Loh YH, Jakszyn P, Luben RN, Mulligan AA, Mitrou PN, Khaw KT. N-Nitroso compounds and cancer incidence: the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)-Norfolk Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2011;93(5):1053-1061.

  80. Walker R. Nitrates, nitrites and N-nitrosocompounds: a review of the occurrence in food and diet and the toxicological implications. Food Additi Contam 1990;7(6):717-768.

  81. Padmanabhan H, Brookes MJ, Iqbal T. Iron and colorectal cancer: evidence from in vitro and animal studies. Nutr Rev 2015;73(5):308-317.

  82. Ward MH, Cross AJ, Abnet CC, Sinha R, Markin RS, Weisenburger DD. Heme iron from meat and risk of adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and stomach. Eur J Cancer Prev 2012;21(2):134-138.

  83. Shen QW, Yao QY. Total fat consumption and pancreatic cancer risk: a meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies. Eur J Cancer Prev 2015;24(4):278-285.

  84. Jansen RJ, Robinson DP, Frank RD, Anderson KE, Bamlet WR, Oberg AL, et al. Fatty acids found in dairy, protein and unsaturated fatty acids are associated with risk of pancreatic cancer in a case-control study. Int J Cancer 2014;134(8):1935-1946.

  85. Chajes V, Thiebaut AC, Rotival M, Gauthier E, Maillard V, Boutron- Ruault MC, et al. Association between serum trans-monounsaturated fatty acids and breast cancer risk in the E3N-EPIC Study. Am J Epidemiol 2008;167(11):1312-1320.

  86. Kim EH, Willett WC, Colditz GA, Hankinson SE, Stampfer MJ, Hunter DJ, et al. Dietary fat and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer in a 20-year follow-up. Am J Epidemiol 2006;164(10):990-997.

  87. Chavarro JE, Stampfer MJ, Campos H, Kurth T, Willett WC, Ma J. A prospective study of trans-fatty acid levels in blood and risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2008;17(1):95-101.

  88. Merritt MA, Cramer DW, Missmer SA, Vitonis AF, Titus LJ, Terry KL. Dietary fat intake and risk of epithelial ovarian cancer by tumour histology. Br J Cancer 2014;110(5):1392-1401.

  89. Vinikoor LC, Millikan RC, Satia JA, Schroeder JC, Martin CF, Ibrahim JG, et al. trans-Fatty acid consumption and its association with distal colorectal cancer in the North Carolina Colon Cancer Study II. Cancer Causes Control 2010;21(1):171-180.

  90. Vinikoor LC, Schroeder JC, Millikan RC, Satia JA, Martin CF, Ibrahim J, et al. Consumption of trans-fatty acid and its association with colorectal adenomas. Am J Epidemiol 2008;168(3):289-297.

  91. Ungefroren H, Gieseler F, Fliedner S, Lehnert H. Obesity and cancer. Hor Mol Biol Clin Inves 2015;21(1):5-15.

  92. Kaaks R. Nutrition, insulin, IGF-1 metabolism and cancer risk: a summary of epidemiological evidence. Novartis Found Symp 2004;262:247- 260; discussion 60-68.

  93. Mulholland HG, Murray LJ, Cardwell CR, Cantwell MM. Glycemic index, glycemic load, and risk of digestive tract neoplasms: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89(2):568-576.

  94. Nagle CM, Olsen CM, Ibiebele TI, Spurdle AB, Webb PM. Glycemic index, glycemic load and endometrial cancer risk: results from the Australian National Endometrial Cancer study and an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Nutr 2013;52(2):705-715.

  95. Romieu I, Ferrari P, Rinaldi S, Slimani N, Jenab M, Olsen A, et al. Dietary glycemic index and glycemic load and breast cancer risk in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Am J Clin Nutr 2012;96(2):345-355.

  96. Genkinger JM, Li R, Spiegelman D, Anderson KE, Albanes D, Bergkvist L, et al. Coffee, tea, and sugar-sweetened carbonated soft drink intake and pancreatic cancer risk: a pooled analysis of 14 cohort studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2012;21(2):305-318.

  97. Laguna JC, Alegret M, Roglans N. Simple sugar intake and hepatocellular carcinoma: epidemiological and mechanistic insight. Nutrients 2014;6(12):5933-5954.

  98. Stepien M, Duarte-Salles T, Fedirko V, Trichopoulou A, Lagiou P, Bamia C, et al. Consumption of soft drinks and juices and risk of liver and biliary tract cancers in a European cohort. Eur J Nutr 2014 Dec 21 [Epub ahead of print].

  99. Calle EE, Kaaks R. Overweight, obesity and cancer: epidemiological evidence and proposed mechanisms. Nat Rev Cancer 2004;4(8):579-591.

  100. Ludwig DS. The glycemic index: physiological mechanisms relating to obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Jama 2002;287(18):2414-2423.

  101. Hawkes C, Asfaw A, Bauman AE, Bull FC, Eckhardt C, Leroy J, Smith M. Evidence on the determinants of dietary patterns, nutrition and physical activity, and the interventions to maintain or to modify them: a systematic review. London: International Food Policy Research Institute to the World Cancer, 2006.

  102. Aleksandrova K, Pischon T, Jenab M, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Fedirko V, Norat T, et al. Combined impact of healthy lifestyle factors on colorectal cancer: a large European cohort study. BMC Med 2014;12:168.

  103. Buckland G, Travier N, Huerta JM, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Siersema PD, Skeie G, et al. Healthy lifestyle index and risk of gastric adenocarcinoma in the EPIC cohort study. Int J Cancer 2015;137(3):598-606.

  104. McKenzie F, Ferrari P, Freisling H, Chajes V, Rinaldi S, de Batlle J, et al. Healthy lifestyle and risk of breast cancer among postmenopausal women in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition cohort study. Int J Cancer 2015;136(11):2640-2648.

  105. Grosso G, Buscemi S, Galvano F, Mistretta A, Marventano S, La Vela V, et al. Mediterranean diet and cancer: epidemiological evidence and mechanism of selected aspects. BMC Surg 2013;13 Suppl 2:S14.

  106. Catsburg C, Kim RS, Kirsh VA, Soskolne CL, Kreiger N, Rohan TE. Dietary patterns and breast cancer risk: a study in 2 cohorts. Am J Clin Nutr 2015;101(4):817-823.

  107. Randi G, Edefonti V, Ferraroni M, La Vecchia C, Decarli A. Dietary patterns and the risk of colorectal cancer and adenomas. Nutr Rev 2010;68(7):389-408.

  108. Romaguera D, Vergnaud AC, Peeters PH, van Gils CH, Chan DS, Ferrari P, et al. Is concordance with World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research guidelines for cancer prevention related to subsequent risk of cancer? Results from the EPIC study. Am J Clin Nutr 2012;96(1):150-163.

  109. Hesketh J. Personalised nutrition: how far has nutrigenomics progressed? Eur J Clin Nutr 2013;67(5):430-435.

  110. IARC. European Code Against Cancer. 12 ways to reduce your cancer risk. Lyon, France: IARC, 2015 [accessed on July 1, 2015]. Available at: http: //cancer-code-europe.iarc.fr/index.php/en/




2020     |     www.medigraphic.com