2013, Number 2
<< Back Next >>
Rev Cubana Neurol Neurocir 2013; 3 (2)
Clinical practice guideline for assistance and management of medical problems in woman’s with epilepsy
Andrade MR, Goicoechea AA, Rodríguez GPL, Fernández AZ, Santos SA, Garnier ÁT, Riol LJM, García EA, de la Torre SME
Language: Spanish
References: 222
Page: 172-195
PDF size: 223.98 Kb.
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Cuba has a well–developed and high quality primary care system. Taking it into consideration is very important to develop a standardized program and an evidence–base guideline to improve (the health) medical care in women with Epilepsy (WWE).
Objective: To carry out a systematic analytic review of the evidence related to the management issues for WWE and to suggest an evidence–based guideline to standardize their care in Cuba.
Methods: A committee assembled by neurologists, psychiatrists, neuropediatricians and general practitioners of the ILAE Cuban Chapter and National Neurology and Neurosurgery Society, reassessed the evidence related to the care of WWE. To answer the questions with respect to attention of WWE, the panel searched information in PubMed, Cochrane, MEDLINE,
BIREME and Scielo data bases. The articles were rated according to the European Federation of Neurological Societies classification of therapeutic evidence scheme. We analyzed 2456 relevant articles, four evidence based guidelines and different national investigations presented in the national conference on epilepsy which takes place in Havana each year.
Development: We provided the evidence–based answers to each question and gave the corresponding recommendation regarding treatment and follow–up of WWE in primary, secondary and tertiary attention levels. The recommendations included topics concerning to preconception counseling, pregnancy, delivery, postpartum and menopause periods.
Conclusions: This guideline constitutes a proposal to the management issues for WWE. It has been elaborated after critical review of evidence–based literature. The authors hope it improve the quality of medical assistance in this group of patients in daily clinical practice.
REFERENCES
Vazquez B, Gibson P, Kustra R. Epilepsy and women’s health issues: unmet needs–survey results from women with epilepsy, Epilepsy Behav. 2007;10:163–9.
Purcell B, Gaitatzis A, Sander JW, Majeed A. Epilepsy prevalence and prescribing patterns in England and Wales. Health Statist Q. 2002;15:23–31.
Olafsson E, Hallgrimsson JT, Hauser WA, Ludvigsson P, Gudmundsson G. Pregnancies of women with epilepsy: a population–based study in Iceland, Epilepsia. 1998;39:887– 92.
Fairgrieve SD, Jackson M, Jonas P. Population based, prospective study of the care of women with epilepsy in pregnancy. Br Med J. 2000;321:674–5.
Barrett C, Richens A. Epilepsy and pregnancy: report of an Epilepsy Research Foundation workshop, Epilepsy Res. 2003;52:147–87.
Brainin M, Barnes M, Baron J–C, Gilhus NE, Hughes R, Selmaj K, Waldemar G. Guidance for the preparation of neurological management guidelines by EFNS scientific task forces – revised recommendations 2004. Eur J Neurol 2004,11:577–81.
Harden CL, Pennell PB, Koppel BS, Hovinga CA, Gidal B, Meador KJ, et al. Management issues for women with epilepsy—Focus on pregnancy (an evidence–based review): III. Vitamin K, folic acid, blood levels, and breast– feeding. Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee and Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society. Epilepsia. 2009;50(5):1247–55.
Harden CL, Meador KJ, Pennell PB, Hauser A, Gronseth GS, French JA, et al. Management issues for women with epilepsy—Focus on pregnancy (an evidence–based review): II. Teratogenesis and perinatal outcomes. Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee and Therapeutics and Technology Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society. Epilepsia. 2009;50(5):1237–46.
Harden LC, Hopp J, Ting TY, Pennell PB, French JA, Hauser WA. Management issues for women with epilepsy— Focus on pregnancy (an evidence–based review): I. Obstetrical complications and change in seizure frequency. Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee and Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society. Epilepsia. 2009;50(5):1229–36.
EURAP Study Group. Seizure control and treatment in pregnancy: observations from the EURAP epilepsy pregnancy registry. Neurology. 2006;66(3):354–60.
Vazquez B, Gibson P, Kustra R. Epilepsy and women’s health issues: unmet needs–survey results from women with epilepsy, Epilepsy Behav. 2007;10:163–9.
Klerman LV. Family planning services: an essential component of preconception care, Matern Child Health J 2006:10 (Suppl. 7);S157–S160.
Olafsson E, Hallgrimsson JT, Hauser WA, Ludvigsson P, Gudmundsson G. Pregnancies of women with epilepsy: a population–based study in Iceland. Epilepsia. 1998;39:887– 92.
Fairgrieve SD, Jackson M, Jonas P. Population based, prospective study of the care of women with epilepsy in pregnancy. Br Med J. 2000;321:674–5.
Barrett C, Richens A. Epilepsy and pregnancy: report of an Epilepsy Research Foundation workshop. Epilepsy Res. 2003;52:147–87.
Char F, Hearty JB, Dungan WT. Problems in counseling the epileptic mother. Birth Defects Orig Artic Ser. 1979;15(5C):261–6.
Friss ML. Antiepileptic drugs and teratogenesis: how should patients, doctors and authorities be counselled?, Acta Neurol Scand. 1983;(Suppl. 94):39–43.
Andermann E, Andermann F, Dansky LV. Counselling for epileptic women of childbearing age. En: M. Dam, L. Gram and J.K. Penry, Editors, Advances in epileptology: XIIth epilepsy international symposium. New York: Raven Press; 1981.
Chamberlain G. Prepregnancy care. En: G. Chamberlain and J. Lumley, Editors, Prepregnancy care: a manual for practice. Chichester: Wiley; 1986. pp. 1–10.
Klerman VL. Family planning services: an essential component of preconception care. Matern Child Health J. 2006;(suppl 7):S157–S160.
Barbara A. Dworetzky, Mary K. Townsend, Page B. Pennell, and Jae H. Kang. Female reproductive factors and risk of seizure or epilepsy: Data from the Nurses’ Health Study II. Epilepsia. 2012;53(1):e1–e4.
Verrotti A, Manco R, Scardapane A, Chiarelli F. Adolescents and epilepsy: hormonal aspects. Minerva Pediatr. 2008;60:417–28.
Luef G, Rauchenzauner M. Epilepsies in girls and women. In: Panayatopoulos CP, editor. The educational kit on epilepsies. Oxford: Medicina Press; 2008. pp. 73–82.
Tomson T, Hiilesmaa V. Epilepsy in pregnancy. Br Med J. 2007;335:769–73.
Crawford P, Appleton R, Betts T. Best practice guidelines for the management of women with epilepsy. Seizure. 1999;8:201–17.
Gorkemli H, Genc BO, Dogan EA, Genc E, Ozdemir S. Long–term effects of valproic acid on reproductive endocrine functions in Turkish women with epilepsy. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2009;67:223—7.
Herzog AG, Seibel MM, Schomer DL, Vaitukaitis JL, Geschwind N. Reproductive endocrine disorders in women with partial seizures of temporal lobe origin. Arch Neurol. 1986;43:341–6.
De Vries L, Karasik A, Landau Z, Phillip M, Kiviti S, Goldberg–Stern H, et al. Endocrine effects of valproate in adolescent girls with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2007;48:470—7.
Bell GS, Nashef L, Kendall S. Information recalled by women taking anti–epileptic drugs for epilepsy: a questionnaire study. Epilepsy Res. 2002;52:139–46.
Crawford P, Hudson S. Understanding the information needs of women with epilepsy at different lifestages: results of the ‘Ideal World’ survey. Seizure. 2003;12:502–7.
Wallace HK, Solomon JK. Quality of epilepsy treatment and services: the views of women with epilepsy. Seizure. 1999;8:81–7.
Johnson K, Posner SF, Biermann J. Recommendations to improve preconception health and health care—United States: a report of the CDC/ATSDR preconception care work group and select panel on preconception care. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006;55(RR06).
Prue CE, Daniel KL. Social marketing: planning before conceiving preconception care. Matern Child Health J. 2006;10 (Suppl. 1):S79–S84.
Grosse SD, Sotnikov SV, Leatherman S, Curtis M. The business case for preconception care: methods and issues, Matern Child Health J. 2006;10 (Suppl. 1):S93–S99.
Meador K, Matthew W, Crean S, Fahrbach K, Probst C. Pregnancy outcomes in women with epilepsy: A systematic review and meta–analysis of published pregnancy registries and cohorts. Epilepsy Research. 2008;81(1):1–13.
Winterbottom J, Smyth R, Jacoby A, Baker G. The effectiveness of preconception counseling to reduce adverse pregnancy outcome in women with epilepsy: what's the evidence?. Epilepsy Behav. 2009;14(2):273–9.
Perucca E, Crema A. Plasma protein binding of drugs in pregnancy. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1982; 7:336–352.
Perucca E. Drug metabolism in pregnancy, infancy and childhood. Pharmacol Ther. 1987;34:129–43.
Perucca E. Clinically relevant drug interactions with antiepileptic drugs. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2006;61:246–55.
Petitti DB. Clinical practice. Combination estrogen– progestin oral contraceptives. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1443–50.
Wooltorton E. Medroxyprogesterone acetate (Depo– Provera) and bone mineral density loss. CMAJ. 2005;172:746.
Tomson T, Luef G, Sabers A, Pittschieler S, Ohman I. Valproate effects on kinetics of lamotrigine in pregnancy and treatment with oral contraceptives. Neurology. 2006;67:1279–81.
Tomson T, Battino D. Pharmacokinetics and therapeutic drug monitoring of newer antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy and puerperium. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2007;46:209–19.
Davis AR, Pack A.M, Kritzer J, Yoon A, Camus A. Reproductive history, sexual behavior and use of contraception in women with epilepsy, Contraception. 2008;77:405–9.
Tomson T. Gender aspects of pharmacokinetics of new and old AEDs: pregnancy and breast–feeding. Ther Drug Monit. 2008;27:718–21.
Abreu–Fernández Z. Disfunción sexual en mujeres con epilepsia. [tesis]. La Habana: Instituto de Neurología y Neurocirugía; 2012
Duncan S, Blacklaw J, Beastall GH, Brodie MJ. Sexual function in women with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1997;38:1074– 81.
Morrell MJ, Sperling MR, Stecker M, Dichter MA. Sexual dysfunction in partial epilepsy: a deficit in physiologic sexual arousal. Neurology. 1994;44:243–7.
Kuba R, Pohanka M, Zakopcan J, Novotna I, Rektor I. Sexual dysfunctions and blood hormonal profile in men with focal epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2006;47:2135–40.
Scharfman HE, MacLusky NJ. The influence of gonadal hormones on neuronal excitability, seizures, and epilepsy in the female. Epilepsia. 2006;47:1423–40.
Stoffel–Wagner B, Bauer J, Flugel D, Brennemann W, Klingmuller D, Elger CE. Serum sex hormones are altered in patients with chronic temporal lobe epilepsy receiving anticonvulsant medication. Epilepsia. 1998;39:1164–73.
Beyenburg S, Stoffel–Wagner B, Bauer J, Watzka M, Blumcke I, Bidlingmaier F, Elger CE. Neuroactive steroids and seizure susceptibility. Epilepsy Res. 2011;44:141–53.
Galimberti CA, Magri F, Copello F, Arbasino C, Cravello L, Casu M, Patrone V, Murialdo G. Seizure frequency and cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) levels in women with epilepsy receiving antiepileptic drug treatment. Epilepsia. 2005;46:517–23.
Herzog AG, Coleman AE, Jacobs AR, Klein P, Friedman MN, Drislane FW, Ransil BJ, Schomer DL. Interictal EEG discharges, reproductive hormones, and menstrual disorders in epilepsy. Ann Neurol. 2003;54:625–37.
Herzog AG. Menstrual disorders in women with epilepsy. Neurology. 2006;66 (6 Supl. 3):S23–8.
Galimberti CA, Mazzucchelli I, Arbasino C, Canevini MP, Fattore C, Perucca E. Increased apparent oral clearance of valproico acid during intake of combined contraceptive steroids in women with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2006;47:1569– 72.
O’Brien MD, Guillebaud J. Contraception Oguni M, Dansky L, Andermann E, Sherwin A, Andermann F. Improved pregnancy outcome in epileptic women in the last decade: relationship to maternal anticonvulsant therapy. Brain Dev. 2006;14:371–80.
Thorneycroft I, Klein P, Simon J. The impact of antiepileptic drug therapy on steroidal contraceptive efficacy. Epilepsy Behav. 2006;9:31–9.
Vessey M, Painter R, Yeates D. Oral contraception and epilepsy: findings in a large cohort study. Contraception. 2002;66:77–9.
Woolley DE, Timiras PS. The gonad–brain relationship: effects of female sex hormones on electroshock convulsions in the rat. Endocrinology. 1962;70:196–209.
Petitti DB. Clinical practice. Combination estrogen– progestin oral contraceptives. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1443–50.
Rasgon N. The relationship between polycystic ovary syndrome and antiepileptic drugs: a review of the evidence. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2004;24:322–34.
MRC Health Services and Public Health Research Board. A framework for the development and evaluation of RCTs for complex interventions to improve health. London: Medical Research Council; 2000. 18 p.
Ray JG, O’Brien TE, Chan WS. Preconception care and the risk of congenital anomalies in the offspring of women with diabetes mellitus: a meta–analysis. Q J Med. 2001;94:435– 44.
Jack BW, Culpepper L. Preconception care: risk reduction and health promotion in preparation for pregnancy, JAMA. 1990;264:1147–9.
Commission on Genetics, Pregnancy, and the Child, International League Against Epilepsy. Guidelines for the care of women of childbearing age with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1993;34:588–9.
Delgado–Escueta AV, Janz D. Consensus guidelines: preconception counseling, management, and care of the pregnant woman with epilepsy. Neurology. 1992;42(Suppl. 5):S149–S160.
Czeizel AE. Ten years of experience in periconceptional care. Eur J Obstet. 1999;84:43–9.
Winterbooton J, Smith R, Jacoby A, Baker G. The effectiveness of preconception counseling to reduce adverse pregnancy outcome in women with epilepsy. What’s the evidence? Epilepsy Beh. 2009;14(2):273–9.
Martin PJ, Millac PAH. Pregnancy, epilepsy, management and outcome: a 10–year perspective. Seizure. 1993,2:277– 80.
O’Brien MD, Gilmour–White SK. Management of epilepsy in women. Postgrad Med J. 2005;81:278–85.
O’Brien MD, Guillebaud J. Contraception for women with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2006;47:1419–22.
Seale CG, Morrell MJ, Nelson L, Druzin ML. Analysis of prenatal and gestational care given to women with epilepsy, Neurology. 1998;51:1039–45.
Jasper JD, Goel R, Einarson A, Gallo M, Koren G. Effects of framing on teratogenic risk perception in pregnant women. Lancet. 2001;358:1237–8.
Czeizel AE, Dudas I. Prevention of the first occurrence of neural–tube defect by periconceptional vitamin supplementation. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:1832–5.
Eros E, Geher P, Gomer B, Czeizel AE. Epileptogenic activity of folic acid after drug induces SLE (folic acid and epilepsy). Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1998;80:75–8.
Kampman M, Johansen SV, Stenvold H, Acharya G. Management of women with epilepsy: Are guidelines being followed? Results from case–note reviews and a patient questionnaire. Epilepsia. 2005;46(8):1286–92.
Craig J, Morrison P, Morrow J, Patterson V. Failure of periconceptual folic acid to prevent a neural tube defect in the offspring of a mother taking sodium valproate. Seizure. 1999;8:253–4.
Kjaer D, Horvath–Puho E, Christensen J. Antiepileptic drug use, folic acid supplementation, and congenital abnormalities: a populationbased case–control study. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 2008;115:98–103.
Abrishamchian AR, Khoury MJ, Calle EE. The contribution of maternal epilepsy and its treatment to the etiology of oral clefts: a population based case–control study. Genet Epidemiol. 1994;11:343–51.
Taruscio D, Agazio E, Salerno P. Prevenzione primaria di difetti congeniti mediante una vitamina: l’acido folico. Notiziario Istituto Superiore Sanit. 2005,18:11–7.
Hernandez–Diaz S, Werler MM, Walker AM, Mitchell AA. Neural tube defects in relation to use of folic acid antagonists during pregnancy. Am J Epidemiol. 2001;153:961–8.
Richmond JR, Krishnamoorthy P, Andermann E, Benjamin A. Epilepsy and pregnancy: an obstetric perspective, Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;190:371–9.
Gjerde IO, Strandjord RE, Ulstein M. The course of epilepsy during pregnancy: a study of 78 cases. Acta Neurol Scand. 1998;78:198–205.
Hiilesmaa VK, Bardy A, Teramo K. Obstetric outcome in women with epilepsy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1985;152:499– 504.
Kalviainen R, Tomson T. Optimizing treatment of epilepsy during pregnancy. Neurology. 2006;67 (Suppl. 4):S59–S63.
Adab N, Tudor Smith C, Vinten J, Williamson PR, Winterbottom JB. Common antiepileptic drugs in pregnancy in women with epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev Commission on Genetics, Pregnancy, and the Child. 2004; Issue 3:CD004848.
International League Against Epilepsy. Guidelines for the care of epileptic women of childbearing age. Epilepsia. 1989;30:409–10.
Committee on Educational Bulletins of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists: ACOG educational bulletin. Seizure disorders in pregnancy. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 1997;56:279–86.
Lynch SA. Population based, prospective study of the care of women with epilepsy in pregnancy. BMJ. 2000;321:674– 5.
Fedrick J. Epilepsy and pregnancy: a report from the Oxford Record Linkage Study. BMJ. 1973;2:442–8.
Schmidt D, Canger R, Avanzini G, Battino D, Cusi C, Beck– Mannagetta G, Koch S, Rating D, Janz D. Change of seizure frequency in pregnant epileptic women. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1983;146:751–5.
Tettenborn B, Genton P, PoThomas SV, Devi CC, Radhakrishnan K, Joshua CS. Seizure pattern during pregnancy and puerperium among women with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2001;41(Suppl. 7):98.
Schmidt D. The effect of pregnancy on the natural history of epilepsy. En: Janz D, Dam M, Bossi L, Helge H, Richens A, Schmidt D (Eds) Epilepsy, Pregnancy, and the Child. New York: Raven Press; 1982. pp. 3–14.
Otani K. Risk factors for the increased seizure frequency during pregnancy and puerperium. Folia Psychiatr Neurol Jpn. 1985;39:33–41.
Richmond JR, Krishnamoorthy P, Andermann E, Benjamin A. Epilepsy and pregnancy: an obstetric perspective. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;190:371–9.
Laskowska M, Leszczyriska–Gorzelak B, Oleszczuk J. Pregnancy in women with epilepsy. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2001;51:99–102.
Martin PJ, Millac PAH. Pregnancy, epilepsy, management and outcome: a 10–year perspective. Seizure. 1993;2:277– 80.
Olafsson E, Hallgrimsson JT, Hauser WA, Ludvigsson P, Gudmundsson G. Pregnancies of women with epilepsy: a population–based study in Iceland. Epilepsia. 1998;39:887– 92.
Sawhney H, Vasishta K, Suri V, Khunnu B, Goel P, Sawhney IMS. Pregnancy with epilepsy – a retrospective analysis. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 1996;54:17–22.
Martin PJ, Millac PAH. Pregnancy, epilepsy, management and outcome: a 10–year perspective. Seizure. 1993;2:277– 80.
Gjerde IO, Strandjord RE, Ulstein M. The course of epilepsy during pregnancy: a study of 78 cases. Acta Neurol Scand. 1988;78:198–205.
Vajda FJE, Hitchcock A, Graham J, O’Brien T, Lander C, Eadie M. Seizure control in antiepileptic drug–treated pregnancy. Epilepsia. 2008;49:172–75.
Teramo K, Hiilesmaa V, Bardy A, Saarikoski S. Fetal heart rate during a maternal grand mal epileptic seizure. J Perinat Med. 1979,7:3–6.
Teramo K, Hiilesmaa V. Pregnancy and fetal complications in epileptic pregnancies. En: Janz D, Dam M, Bossi L, Helge H, Richens A, Schmidt D (Eds) Epilepsy, pregnancy, and the child. New York: Raven Press; 1982. pp. 53–9.
Rovet J, Cole S, Nulman I. Effects of maternal epilepsy on children’s neurodevelopment. Child Neuropsychol. 1985;1:150–7.
Samren EB, van Duijn C, Koch S. Maternal use of antiepileptic drugs and the risk of major congenital malformations: a joint European prospective study of human teratogenesis associated with maternal epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1997;38:981–90.
Samrén EB, van Duijn CM, Christiaens GC, Hofman A, Lindhout D. Antiepileptic drug regimens and major congenital abnormalities in the offspring. Ann Neurol. 1999;46:739–46.
Shakir RA, Abdulwahab B. Congenital malformations before and after the onset of maternal epilepsy. Acta Neurol Scand. 1999; 84:153–6.
Speidel BD, Meadow SR. Maternal epilepsy and abnormalities of fetus and the newborn. Lancet. 1972;1:839–43.
Starreveld–Zimmerman AA, Van der Kolk WJ, Meinardi H, Elshove J. Are anticonvulsants teratogenic? Lancet. 1973;2:48–9.
Steegers–Theunissen RP, Renier WO, Borm GF, Thomas CM, Merkus HM, Op de Coul DA, De Jong PA, van Geijn HP, Wouters M, Eskes TK. Factors influencing the risk of abnormal pregnancy outcome in epileptic women: a multi– centre prospective study. Epilepsy Res. 1994;18:261–9.
Steinhausen HC, Lçsche G, Koch S, Helge H. The psychological development of children of epileptic parents. I. Study design and comparative findings. Acta Paediatr. 1994; 83:955–60.
Stoll C, Clementi M. Prenatal diagnosis of dysmorphic syndromes by routine fetal ultrasound examination across Europe. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2003;21:543–51.
Tanganelli P, Regesta G. Epilepsy, pregnancy, and major birth anomalies: an Italian prospective, controlled study. Neurology. 1992;42(4 Suppl. 5):89–93.
Kaaja E, Kaaja R, Hiilesmaa V. Major malformations in offspring of women with epilepsy. Neurology. 2003;60:575– 9.
Kallen B. A register study of maternal epilepsy and delivery outcome with special reference to drug use. Acta Neurol Scand. 1986;73:253–9.
Kallen B, Robert E, Mastroiacovo P, Martinez–Frias M, Castilla E, Cocchi G. Anticonvulsant drugs and malformations is there a drug specificity? Eur J Epidemiol. 1989;5:31–6.
Kaneko S, Otani K, Fukushima Y, Ogawa Y, Nomura Y, Ono T, Nakane Y, Teranishi T, Goto M. Teratogenicity of antiepileptic drugs: analysis of possible risk factors. Epilepsia. 1988;29:459–67.
Kaneko S, Otani K, Fukushima Y. Malformation in infants of mothers with epilepsy receiving antiepileptic drugs. Neurology. 1992;42:68–74.
Kaneko S, Battino D, Andermann E, Wada K, Kan R, Takeda A, et al. Congenital malformations due to antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsy Res. 1999;33:145–58.
Kelly TE, Edwards P, Rein M, Miller JQ, Dreifuss FE. Teratogenicity of anticonvulsant drugs. IV: the association of clefting and epilepsy. Am J Med Genet. 1984;19:451–8.
Kelly TE, Edwards P, Rein M, Miller JQ, Dreifuss FE. Teratogenicity of anticonvulsant drugs. II: a prospective study. Am J Med Genet. 1984;19:435–43.
Koch S, Hartmann A, Juger–Roman E, Rating D, Helge H. Major malformation in children of epileptic mothers–due to epilepsy or its therapy?. En: Janz D, Dam M, Bossi L, Helge H, Richens A, Schmidt D (Eds) Epilepsy, pregnancy, and the child. New York: Raven Press; 1982. pp. 313–5.
Koch S. [Anti–epileptic agents during pregnancy. A prospective study on the course of pregnancy, malformations and child development]. Dtsch Med Wochenschr. 1982;108:250–7.
Koch S, Losche G, Jager–Roman E, Jakob S, Rating D, Deichl A, Helge H. Major and minor birth malformations and antiepileptic drugs. Neurology. 1992;42(4 Suppl. 5):83–8.
Artama M, Isoj_rvi JI, Raitanen J, Auvinen A. Birth rate among patients with epilepsy: a nation wide population– based cohort study in Finland. Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159:1057–63.
Eskazan E, Aslan S. Antiepileptic therapy and teratogenicity in Turkey. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol. 1992;30:261– 4.
Fonager K, Larsen H, Pedersen L, Sørensen HT. Birth outcomes in women exposed to anticonvulsant drugs. Acta Neurol Scand. 2002;101:289–94.
Friis ML. Epilepsy among parents of children with facial clefts. Epilepsia .1979;20:69–76.
Friis ML, Hauge M. Congenital heart defects in live–born children of epileptic parents. Arch Neurol. 1985;42:374–6.
Gjerde IO, Strandjord RE, Ulstein M. The course of epilepsy during pregnancy: a study of 78 cases. Acta Neurol Scand. 1988;78:198–205.
Gramstrom ML. Development of the children of epileptic mothers: preliminary results from the prospective Helsinki study. En: Janz D, Dam M, Bossi L, Helge H, Richens A, Schmidt D (Eds) Epilepsy, pregnancy, and the child. New York: Raven Press; 1982. pp. 403–8.
Greenberg G, Inman WH, Weatherall JA, Adelstein AM, Haskey JC. Maternal drug histories and congenital abnormalities. BMJ. 1997;2:853–6.
Artama M, Auvinen A, Raudaskoski T, Isojärvi I, Isojärvi J. Antiepileptic drug use of women with epilepsy and congenital malformations in offspring. Neurology. 2005;64:1874–78.
Annegers JF, Hauser WA, Elveback LR, Anderson VE, Kurland LI. Congenital malformations and seizure disorders in the offspring of parents with epilepsy. Int J Epidemiol. 1978;7:241–7.
Arpino C, Brescianini S, Robert E, Craig J, Lindhout D, Perucca E. Teratogenic effects of antiepileptic drugs: use of an International Database on Malformations and Drug Exposure (MADRE). Epilepsia. 2000;41:1436–43.
Barrett C, Richens A. Epilepsy and pregnancy: report of an Epilepsy Research Foundation Workshop. Epilepsy Res. 2003;52:147–87.
Battino D. Anticonvulsants. In Dukes G, Aronson JK (Eds) Meyler's side effects of drugs. 14th ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science B.V.; 2000. pp. 164–197.
Battino D. Assessment of teratogenic risk. Epilepsy Res. 2001;45:171–3.
Battino D, Kaneko S, Andermann E. Intrauterine growth in the offspring of epileptic women: a prospective multicenter study. Epilepsy Res. 1999;36:53–60.
Annegers JF, Elveback LR, Hauser WA, Kurland LT. Do anticonvulsants have a teratogenic effect? Arch Neurol. 1974;31:364–73.
Beck–Mannagetta G, Drees B, Janz D Malformations and minor anomalies in the offspring of epileptic parents: a retrospective study. En: Janz D, Dam M, Bossi L, Helge H, Richens A, Schmidt D (Eds) Epilepsy, pregnancy, and the child. New York: Raven Press; 1982. pp. 317–23.
Bertollini R, Mastroiacovo P, Segni G. Maternal epilepsy and birth defects: a case–control study in the Italian Multicentric Registry of Birth Defects (IPIMC). Eur J Epidemiol. 1985;1:67–72.
Bertollini R, K_llen B, Mastroiacovo P, Robert E. Anticonvulsant drugs in monotherapy. Effect on the fetus. Eur J Epidemiol. 1987;3:164–71.
Blumenfeld Z, Siegler E, Bronshstein M. The early diagnosis of neural tube defects. Prenat Diagn. 1993;13:863–71.
Camp BW, Broman SH, Nichols PL, Leff M. Maternal and neonatal risk factors for mental retardation: defining the ‘at– risk’ child. Early Hum Dev. 1998;50:159–73.
Canger R, Battino D, Canevini MP, Fumarola C, Guidolin L, Vignoli A, et al. Malformations in offspring of women with epilepsy: a prospective study. Epilepsia. 1999;40:1231–6.
Chmait R, Pretorius D, Jones M, Hull A, James G, Nelson T, Moore T. Prenatal evaluation of facial clefts with two– dimensional and adjunctive three–dimensional ultrasonography: a prospective trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002;187:946–9.
Vajda FJE, Hitchcock A, Graham J. Fetal malformations and seizure control: 52 months data of the Australian Pregnancy Registry. Eur J Neurol. 2006;13:645–54.
Meador KJ, Baker GA, Finnell RH. In utero antiepileptic drug exposure: fetal death and malformations. Neurology. 2006;67:407–12.
Dolk H, McElhatton P. Assessing epidemiological evidence for the teratogenic effects of anticonvulsant medications. J Med Genet. 2002;39:243–4.
Dravet C, Julian C, Legras C, Magaudda A, Guerrini R, Genton P, et al. Epilepsy, antiepileptic drugs, and malformations in children of women with epilepsy: a French prospective cohort study. Neurology. 1982;42(4 Suppl. 5):75–82.
Dronamraju KR. Epilepsy and cleft lip and palate. Lancet. 1970;2:876–7.
Hattig H, Helge H, Steinhausen HC. Infants of epileptic mothers: development scores at 18 months. En: Wolf P, Dam M, Janz D (Eds) Advances in Epileptology. New York: Raven Press; 1987. pp. 403–8.
Hiilesmaa VK, Teramo K, Granstrom ML, Bardy AH. Fetal head growth retardation associated with maternal antiepileptic drugs. Lancet. 1985;2:165–7.
Holmes LB, Harvey EA, Coull BA, Huntington KB, Khoshbin S, Hayes AM, Ryan LM. The teratogenicity of anticonvulsant drugs. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:1132–8.
Holmes LB, Wyszynski DF, Lieberman E. The AED (antiepileptic drug) pregnancy registry: a 6–year experience. Arch Neurol. 2004;61:673–8.
Jager–Roman E. Somatic parameters, diseases and psychomotor development in the offspring of epileptic parents. En: Janz D, Dam M, Bossi L, Helge H, Richens A, Schmidt D (Eds) Epilepsy, pregnancy, and the child. New York: Raven Press: 1982. pp. 425–32.
Meadow SR. Congenital abnormalities and anticonvulsant drugs. Proc R Soc Med. 1970;63:48–9.
Meyer JG. The teratological effects of anticonvulsants and the effects on pregnancy and birth. Eur Neurol. 1973;10:179–90.
Mitchell LE, Adzick NS, Melchionne J, Pasquariello PS, Sutton LN, Whitehead AS. Spina bifida. Lancet. 2004;364:1885–95.
Morrow JI, Russell A, Guthrie E, Parsons L, Robertson I, Waddell R, et al. Malformation risks of anti–epileptic drugs in pregnancy: a prospective study from the UK Epilepsy and Pregnancy Register. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2006; 77:193–198.
Nakane Y, Okuma T, Takahashi R, Sato Y, Wada T, Sato T, et al. Multi–institutional study on the teratogenicity and fetal toxicity of antiepileptic drugs: a report of a collaborative study group in Japan. Epilepsia 1980;21:663–80.
Nakane Y. Factors influencing the risk of malformations among infants born to epileptic mothers. En: Janz D, Dam M, Bossi L, Helge H, Richens A, Schmidt D (Eds) Epilepsy, pregnancy, and the child. New York: Raven Press; 1982. pp. 259–65.
Nomura Y. The physical and mental development of infants born to mothers treated with antiepileptic drugs. En: Sato T, Shinagawa S (Eds) Antiepileptic drugs and pregnancy. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica; 1984. pp. 187–95.
Losche G, Steinhausen HC, Koch S, Helge H. The psychological development of children of epileptic parents. II. The differential impact of intrauterine exposure to anticonvulsant drugs and further influential factors. Acta Paediatr. 1994;83:961–6.
Rating D. Major malformations and minor anomalies in the offspring of epileptic parents: the role of antiepileptic drugs. En: Nau H, Scott WJ Jr (Eds) Pharmacokinetics in teratogenesis. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1987. pp. 205– 24.
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Screening for structural anomalies. En: Welsh A (Ed) Antenatal care: routine care for the healthy pregnant woman. London: RCOG Press; 2008. pp. 134–53.
Koch S, Titze K, Zimmermann RB, Schrçder M, Lehmkull U, Rauh H. Long–term neuropsychological consequences of maternal epilepsy and anticonvulsant treatment during pregnancy for school–age children and adolescents. Epilepsia. 1999;40:1237–43.
Lindhout D. Hazards of fetal exposure to drugs combination. En: Janz D, Dam M, Bossi L, Helge H, Richens A, Schmidt D (Eds). Epilepsy, pregnancy, and the child. New York: Raven Press; 1982. pp. 275–81.
Lindhout D, Meinardi H, Meijer JW, Nau H. Antiepileptic drugs and teratogenesis in two consecutive cohorts: changes in prescription policy paralleled by changes in pattern of malformations. Neurology. 1992;142(4 Suppl. 5):94–110.
Jick SS, Terris BZ. Anticonvulsants and congenital malformations. Pharmacotherapy. 1997; 17:561–4.
Gaillard HL, Sachs ES, Wladimiroff JW. The risk of spina bifida aperta after first–trimester exposure to valproate in a prenatal cohort. Neurology. 1992;42(4 Suppl. 5):119–25.
Robinson JN, Simpson LL, Abuhamad AZ. Screening for fetal heart disease with ultrasound. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2003;46:890–6.
Rodriguez–Pinilla E, Arroyo I, Fondevilla J. Prenatal exposure to valproic acid during pregnancy and limb deficiencies: a case–control study. Am J Med Genet. 2000;90:376–81.
Lindhout D, Schmidt D. In–utero exposure to valproate and neural tube defects. Lancet. 1886; 1:1392–3.
Lindhout D, Meinardi H. Spina bifida and in–utero exposure to valproate. Lancet. 1984;2:396.
Wide K, Winbladh B, Kallen B. Major malformations in infants exposed to antiepileptic drugs in utero, with emphasis on carbamazepina and valproic acid: a nation– wide, population–based register study. Acta Paediatr. 2004;93:174–6.
Diav–Citrin O, Shechtman S, Arnon J, Ornoy A. Is carbamazepina teratogenic? A prospective controlled study of 210 pregnancies. Neurology. 2001;57:321–4.
Jones KL, Lacro RV, Johnson KA, Adams J. Pattern of malformations in the children of women treated with carbamazepine during pregnancy. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:1661–6.
Lindhout D, Hoppener RJ, Meinardi H. Teratogenicity of antiepileptic drug combinations with special emphasis on epoxidation (of carbamazepine). Epilepsia. 1984;25:77–83.
Ornoy A, Cohen E. Outcome of children born to epileptic mothers treated with carbamazepine during pregnancy. Arch Dis Child. 1996;75:517–20.
Omtzigt JG, Los FJ, Grobbee DE, Pijpers L, Jahoda MG, Brandenburg H, Stewart PA,
Rosa FW. Spina bifida in infants of women treated with carbamazepine during pregnancy. N Engl J Med. 1991;324:674–7.
Reinisch JM, Sanders SA, Mortensen EL, Rubin DB. In utero exposure to phenobarbital and intelligence deficits in adult men. JAMA. 1885;274:1518–25.
Vanoverloop D, Schnell RR, Harvey EA, Holmes LB. The effects of prenatal exposure to phenytoin and other anticonvulsants on intellectual function at 4 to 8 years of age. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 1992;14:329–35.
Scolnik D, Nulman I, Rovet J, Gladstone D, Czuchta D, Gardner HA, et al. Neurodevelopment of children exposed in utero to phenytoin and carbamazepine monotherapy. JAMA. 1994;271:767–70.
Holmes LB, Wyszynski DF, Baldwin EJ, Habecker E, Glassman LH, Smith CR. Increased risk for non–syndromic cleft palate among infants exposed to lamotrigine during pregnancy. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 2006,78:318.
Anonymous. Lamotrigine possibly linked to cleft palate/lip, warns FDA. Reactions Weekly October 7, 2006;1122:2.
Vidovic MI, Della Marina BM. Trimestral changes of seizure frequency in pregnant epileptic women. Acta Med Croatica. 1994;48:85–7.
Tomson T, Perucca E, Battino D. Navigating toward fetal and maternal health: the challenge of treating epilepsy in pregnancy. Epilepsia. 2004; 45:1171–775.
Brodtkorb E, Reimers A. Seizure control and pharmacokinetics of antiepileptic drugs in pregnant women with epilepsy. Seizure. 2008;17:160—5.
Falchi M, Palmas G, Pisano T, Meloni M, Gaspa G, Puddu M, et al. Incidence of epilepsy in extremely low–birthweight infants (<1,000 g): A population study of central and southern Sardinia. Epilepsia. 2009;50(Suppl. 1):37–40.
Vohr BR, Wright LL, Dusick AM, Mele L, Verter J, Steichen JJ, et al. Neurodevelopmental and functional outcomes of extremely low birth weight infants in the national institute of child health and human development neonatal research network, 1993–1994. Pediatrics. 2009;105:1216–26.
Reimersa A, Heldeb G, Bråthen G, Brodtkorbb E. Lamotrigine and its N2–glucuronide during pregnancy: The significance of renal clearance and estradiol. Epilepsy Res. 2011. doi:10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2011.02.002
Anderson GD. Pregnancy–induced changes in pharmacokinetics: a mechanistic–based approach. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 2005;44;989—1008.
Bock KW. Functions and transcriptional regulation of adult human hepatic UDP–glucuronosyl–transferases (UGTs): mechanisms responsible for interindividual variation of UGT levels. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2010;80;771—7.
Beck O, Ohman I, Nordgren HK. Determination of lamotrigine and its metabolites in human plasma by liquid chromatography—mass spectrometry. Ther Drug Monit. 2006;28:603—7.
Tran TA, Leppik IE, Blesi K, Sathanandan ST, Remmel R. Lamotrigine clearance during pregnancy. Neurology. 2002;59:251–5.
Pennell PB, Newport DJ, Stowe ZN, Helmers SL, Montgomery JQ, Henry TR. The impact of pregnancy and childbirth on the metabolism of lamotrigine. Neurology. 2004;62:292–5.
Pennell PB, Peng L, Newport DJ, Ritchie JC, Koganti A, Holley DK, et al. Lamotrigine in pregnancy: clearance, therapeutic drug monitoring, and seizure frequency. Neurology. 2008;70:2130–6.
Mazzucchelli I, Onat FY, Ozkara C, Atakli D, Specchio LM, Neve AL, et al. Changes in the disposition of oxcarbazepina and its metabolites during pregnancy and the puerperium. Epilepsia. 2006;47:504–9.
Bardy AH. Incidence of seizures during pregnancy, labor and puerperium in epileptic women: a prospective study. Acta Neurol Scand. 1987;75:356–60.
Tomson T, Battino D. Pharmacokinetics and therapeutic drug monitoring of newer antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy and puerperium. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2007;46:209–19.
Adab N. Therapeutic monitoring of antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy and in the postpartum period: is it useful? CNS Drugs. 2006;20:791–800.
Pennell PB, Peng L, Newport DJ. Lamotrigine in pregnancy: clearance, therapeutic drug monitoring, and seizure frequency. Neurology. 2008;70:2130–6.
Patsalos PN, Berry DJ, Bourgeois BF. Antiepileptic drugs––best practice guidelines for therapeutic drug monitoring: a position paper by the subcommission on therapeutic drug monitoring, ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia. 2008;49:1239–76.
Pennell PB. Pregnancy in women who have epilepsy. Neurol Clin. 2004;22:799–820. 210. Pennell PB, Gidal BE, Sabers A. Pharmacology of antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy and lactation. Epilepsy Behav. 2007;11:263–9.
Turner k, Piazzini A, Franza A, Marconi AM, Canger R, Canevini MP. Epilepsy and postpartum depression. Epilepsia. 2009;50 (Suppl. 1):24–7.
Misri S, Kendrick K. Treatment of perinatal mood and anxiety disorders: a review. Can J Psychiatry. 2007;52:489–98.
Segre LS, O’Hara MW, Arndt S, Stuart S. The prevalence of postpartum depression: the relative significance of three social status indices. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2007;42:316–21.
Dennis CL. Psychosocial and psychological interventions for prevention of postnatal depression: systematic review. BMJ. 2005;331:5–6.
DSM–IV–TR. Diagnostic manual and statistical manual of mental disorders. American Psychiatric Association: Washington DC; 2000
Engel J. A proposed diagnostic scheme for people with epileptic seizures and with epilepsy: report of ILAE task force on classification and terminology. Epilepsia. 2001;42:796–803.
Harden CL, Koppel BS, Herzog AG, Nikolov BG, Hauser WA. Seizure frequency is associated with age at menopause in women with epilepsy. Neurology. 2003;61:451–5.
Klein P, Serje A, Pezzulo JC. Premature ovarian failure in women with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2001;42:1584–9.
Harden CL, Pulver MC, Ravdin L, Jacobs AR. The effect of menopause and perimenopause on the course of epilepsy. Epilepsia. 1999;40:1402–7.
Roscizewska D. Menopause in women and its effects on epilepsy. Neurol Neurochir Pol. 1978;12:315–9.
Røste LS, Taubøll E, Svalheim S, Gjerstad L. Does menopause affect the epilepsy? Seizure. 2008;17:172–5.
Pack A. Bone health in people with epilepsy: is it impaired and what are the risk factors? Seizure. 2008;17:181–6.
Sheth RD, Binkley N, Hermann BP. Progressive bone deficit in epilepsy. Neurology. 2008;70:170–6.