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Academia Mexicana de Neurología, A.C.

2006, Number 2

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Rev Mex Neuroci 2006; 7 (2)

Violence and brain

Escobar A, Gómez GB

Language: Spanish
References: 84
Page: 156-163
PDF size: 192.70 Kb.


ABSTRACT

Nowadays violence and aggression seem to be a rampant pattern of behavior in modern societies all over the world. It seems that aggression and violent behavior have evolved to form part of the cultural legacy to present day human lineage; all this due to the multiple factors underlying the genesis of violence, the daily life stress being one of them and possible the most important. Violence is an attitude associated to mechanisms generated in the central nervous system (CNS). Due to participation of CNS in violent behavior, both somatic and visceral activities are concomitantly generated since sensory, motor, and autonomic nervous system are included; also the endocrine and immune systems being part of the alarm reaction facing an stress situation. However, mechanisms of learning and memory, which also depend on the CNS, may increase, diminish or eliminate the violent behavior. Violent behavior in phylogeny is universal in all the animal scale. Participating neural structures include the limbic system; also non-limbic structures such as brain stem and spinal cord. In the limbic system participate with functional significance and connectivity the amygdala, hippocampal formation, hypothalamus, thalamus, the dorsal, medial, and orbital prefrontal cortices and the cingulate cortex, and in the mesencephalon the ventral tegmental area and periaqueductal gray. The non-limbic structures also include the specific and nonspecfic afferent pathways, the neocortical areas specific and associative, both unimodal and heteromodal, the motor nuclei, both somatic and visceral, in the brain stem and spinal cord. To say it simple, all the CNS participates, structurally and functionally, associated to all the neurotransmitters needed to make it work the interconnections between limbic and non-limbic structures. It is this interplay in the CNS that brings forth the appropriate behavioral patterns along with their psychological substrata. The functional significance of each neural structure participating in emotions has been understood by studies in the human and in some animal models. The amygdala involved in emotional memory is beyond any doubt the basic structure to properly validate the wealth of stimuli that all humans have to face in daily life and generate the emotional response whether the experience may be agreeable or disagreeable, extrinsic or intrinsic, traveling into the CNS. Aggressive behavior is triggered following stimuli applied to the amygdala, and a similar response is observed by stimulation on the hypothalamus, both of which are interconnected. Sham rage observed both in the hypothalamic animal model and in the decorticated animal, constitutes a pattern of aggressive behavior due to lost of the neocortical inhibitory effect. On the contrary, violent behavior and aggression fade away subsequent to bilateral temporal lobectomy including the amygdala. In conclusion violence and aggression constitute a normal function of the human CNS and of other vertebrates in phylogeny. No wonder it was asserted in the near past “corticalization means civilization”.


REFERENCES

  1. Herrera H. Violencia en dos de cada tres familias. El Universal, Sección C, p. 1; 3 de febrero, 2005.

  2. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática/INEGI 2004. Estadísticas de violencia contra las mujeres. Reproducido en Epidemiología 2005; 22(6): 1-3.

  3. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática/INEGI 2004. Estadísticas de violencia contra las mujeres. Reproducido en Epidemiología 2005; 22(7): 1-3.

  4. Rendón I. Urgen a combatir maltrato infantil en Iberoamérica. Reforma, Sección A, página 24; 9 de febrero, 2003.

  5. Loredo-Abdalá A. Maltrato en el Niño. México: McGraw-Hill Interamericana; 2001.

  6. American Academy of Pediatrics. Guidelines for the evaluation of sexual abuse of children. Pediatrics 1999; 3: 186-90.

  7. Mateos RJM. La violencia de nuestros días. ¿Genera altos riesgos en la salud de nuestros niños y adolescentes? Pro-infancia. La Plata; 2003, p. 35.

  8. Coleman D. La inteligencia emocional. Argentina; 1999, p. 15.

  9. Loredo AA (ed.). Maltrato en niños y adolescentes. ETM; 2004; p. xvi + 397.

  10. Merriam-Webster’s DeLuxe Dictionary, 10th Collegiate Ed. Springfield; 1998, p. 2063.

  11. Corsini RJ. The dictionary of psychology. USA, Bruner Mazel; 1999, p. 1052.

  12. Lorenz K. On aggression. NY: MJF Books; 1963, p. xiv + 306.

  13. MacLean PD. The triune brain in evolution. Role in paleocerebral functions. New York: Plenum; 1989, p. x + 672.

  14. Damasio A. Looking for Spinoza: Joy, Sorrow, and the feeling brain. London: Harvest Book; 2003, p. 356.

  15. Descartes R. Philosophical Writings. Selected and translated by N Kemp-Smith. NY: Modern Lib.: 1958, p. 273.

  16. Nelson RJ, Chiavegatto S. Molecular basis of aggression. TINS 2001; 24: 713-19.

  17. Simón NG, et al. Testosterone and its metabolites modulate 5HT1A and 5HT1b agonist effects on intermale aggression. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1998; 23: 325-36.

  18. Bear MF, Connors BW, Paradiso MA. Neuroscience. Exploring the Brain. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2002, p. xxix + 855 (Chapt. 18: Brain mechanisms of emotion. Pp. 580-605 ).

  19. Escobar A, Gómez González B. ¿Qué es la amígdala? Gaceta Biomédicas 2002; 7: 9-10.

  20. Livingston K, Escobar A. The anatomical bias of the limbic system concept. Arch Neurol 1971; 24: 540-46.

  21. Klüver H, Bucy PC. Preliminary analysis of functions of the temporal lobes in monkeys. Arch Neurol Psychiat 1939; 42: 979-1000.

  22. Bard P. On emotional expression after decortication with some remarks on certain theoretical views. Part I. Psychol Rev 1934; 41: 309-29; Part II. 41: 424-49.

  23. Goltz F. Der Hund ohne Grosshirn. Pflüger’s Arch Ges Physiol 1892; 51: 570-614.

  24. Cannon WB, Britton SW. Studies on the conditions of activity in endocrine glands. XV. Pseudoaffective medulliadrenal secretion. Am J Physiol 1925; 72: 283-94.

  25. Bard P. A diencephalic mechanism for the expression of rage with special reference to the sympathetic nervous system. Am J Physiol 1928; 84: 490-515.

  26. MacLean PD. The hypothalamus and emotional behavior. In: Haymaker W, Anderson E, Nauta WJH (eds.). The hypothalamus. Chapt 18. Springfield: CC Thomas; 1969, p. 659-78.

  27. Davidson RJ. Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation a possible prelude to violence. Science 2000; 289: 591-4.

  28. Gregg TR, Siegel A. Brain structures and neurotransmitters regulating aggression in cats: implications for human aggression. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2001; 25: 91-140.

  29. Selye H. A syndrome produced by diverse nocuous agents. Nature 1936; 138: 32.

  30. Cannon WB. Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear and rage. Nueva York: Appleton; 1929.

  31. Bruner C, Vargas I. The activity of rats in a swimming situation as a function of water temperature. Physiology and Behavior 1994; 55: 21-8.

  32. Gómez-González B, Escobar A. Neuroanatomía del estrés. Rev Mex Neuroci 2002; 3: 273-82.

  33. Gudlaugsdortti GR, Vilhjalmsson R, Kristjandottir G, Jacobsen R, Meyrowitsch D. Violent behavior among adolescents in Iceland: a national survey. Int J Epidemiol 2004; 33: 1046-51.

  34. Henessy DA. From driver stress to workplace aggression. Paper presented at the 111th Annual American Psychological Association Convention. August 7-10, Toronto, Canada.

  35. Yehuda R. Post-traumatic stress disorder. New Engl J Med 2000; 346: 108-30.

  36. Connor DF, et al. Aggressive behavior in abused children. Ann NY Acad Sci 2003; 1008: 79-90.

  37. Haller J, Halasz J, Mikics E, Kruk MR, Makara GB. Ultradian corticosterone rhythm and the propensity to behave aggressively in male rats. J Neuroendocrinol 2000; 12: 937-40.

  38. Kruk MR, Halasz J, Meelis W, Haller J. Fast positive feedback between the adrenocortical stress response and a brain mechanism involved in aggressive behavior. Behav Neurosci 2004; 118: 1062-70.

  39. MacLean PD. The triune brain in evolution. role in paleocerebral functions. New York: Plenum; 1989, p. x + 672.

  42. Otras referencias con revisión amplia del tema:

  44. • Mattson MP (ed.). Neurobiology of aggression. Understanding and preventing violence. Totowa, New Jersey: Human Press; 2003, p. x + 324.

  45. • Pacak C, et al. Stress. Current neuroendocrine and genetic approaches. Ann NY Acad Sci 2004: 1018: xiv + 590.

  46. Herrera H. Violencia en dos de cada tres familias. El Universal, Sección C, p. 1; 3 de febrero, 2005.

  47. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática/INEGI 2004. Estadísticas de violencia contra las mujeres. Reproducido en Epidemiología 2005; 22(6): 1-3.

  48. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática/INEGI 2004. Estadísticas de violencia contra las mujeres. Reproducido en Epidemiología 2005; 22(7): 1-3.

  49. Rendón I. Urgen a combatir maltrato infantil en Iberoamérica. Reforma, Sección A, página 24; 9 de febrero, 2003.

  50. Loredo-Abdalá A. Maltrato en el Niño. México: McGraw-Hill Interamericana; 2001.

  51. American Academy of Pediatrics. Guidelines for the evaluation of sexual abuse of children. Pediatrics 1999; 3: 186-90.

  52. Mateos RJM. La violencia de nuestros días. ¿Genera altos riesgos en la salud de nuestros niños y adolescentes? Pro-infancia. La Plata; 2003, p. 35.

  53. Coleman D. La inteligencia emocional. Argentina; 1999, p. 15.

  54. Loredo AA (ed.). Maltrato en niños y adolescentes. ETM; 2004; p. xvi + 397.

  55. Merriam-Webster’s DeLuxe Dictionary, 10th Collegiate Ed. Springfield; 1998, p. 2063.

  56. Corsini RJ. The dictionary of psychology. USA, Bruner Mazel; 1999, p. 1052.

  57. Lorenz K. On aggression. NY: MJF Books; 1963, p. xiv + 306.

  58. MacLean PD. The triune brain in evolution. Role in paleocerebral functions. New York: Plenum; 1989, p. x + 672.

  59. Damasio A. Looking for Spinoza: Joy, Sorrow, and the feeling brain. London: Harvest Book; 2003, p. 356.

  60. Descartes R. Philosophical Writings. Selected and translated by N Kemp-Smith. NY: Modern Lib.: 1958, p. 273.

  61. Nelson RJ, Chiavegatto S. Molecular basis of aggression. TINS 2001; 24: 713-19.

  62. Simón NG, et al. Testosterone and its metabolites modulate 5HT1A and 5HT1b agonist effects on intermale aggression. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1998; 23: 325-36.

  63. Bear MF, Connors BW, Paradiso MA. Neuroscience. Exploring the Brain. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2002, p. xxix + 855 (Chapt. 18: Brain mechanisms of emotion. Pp. 580-605 ).

  64. Escobar A, Gómez González B. ¿Qué es la amígdala? Gaceta Biomédicas 2002; 7: 9-10.

  65. Livingston K, Escobar A. The anatomical bias of the limbic system concept. Arch Neurol 1971; 24: 540-46.

  66. Klüver H, Bucy PC. Preliminary analysis of functions of the temporal lobes in monkeys. Arch Neurol Psychiat 1939; 42: 979-1000.

  67. Bard P. On emotional expression after decortication with some remarks on certain theoretical views. Part I. Psychol Rev 1934; 41: 309-29; Part II. 41: 424-49.

  68. Goltz F. Der Hund ohne Grosshirn. Pflüger’s Arch Ges Physiol 1892; 51: 570-614.

  69. Cannon WB, Britton SW. Studies on the conditions of activity in endocrine glands. XV. Pseudoaffective medulliadrenal secretion. Am J Physiol 1925; 72: 283-94.

  70. Bard P. A diencephalic mechanism for the expression of rage with special reference to the sympathetic nervous system. Am J Physiol 1928; 84: 490-515.

  71. MacLean PD. The hypothalamus and emotional behavior. In: Haymaker W, Anderson E, Nauta WJH (eds.). The hypothalamus. Chapt 18. Springfield: CC Thomas; 1969, p. 659-78.

  72. Davidson RJ. Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation a possible prelude to violence. Science 2000; 289: 591-4.

  73. Gregg TR, Siegel A. Brain structures and neurotransmitters regulating aggression in cats: implications for human aggression. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2001; 25: 91-140.

  74. Selye H. A syndrome produced by diverse nocuous agents. Nature 1936; 138: 32.

  75. Cannon WB. Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear and rage. Nueva York: Appleton; 1929.

  76. Bruner C, Vargas I. The activity of rats in a swimming situation as a function of water temperature. Physiology and Behavior 1994; 55: 21-8.

  77. Gómez-González B, Escobar A. Neuroanatomía del estrés. Rev Mex Neuroci 2002; 3: 273-82.

  78. Gudlaugsdortti GR, Vilhjalmsson R, Kristjandottir G, Jacobsen R, Meyrowitsch D. Violent behavior among adolescents in Iceland: a national survey. Int J Epidemiol 2004; 33: 1046-51.

  79. Henessy DA. From driver stress to workplace aggression. Paper presented at the 111th Annual American Psychological Association Convention. August 7-10, Toronto, Canada.

  80. Yehuda R. Post-traumatic stress disorder. New Engl J Med 2000; 346: 108-30.

  81. Connor DF, et al. Aggressive behavior in abused children. Ann NY Acad Sci 2003; 1008: 79-90.

  82. Haller J, Halasz J, Mikics E, Kruk MR, Makara GB. Ultradian corticosterone rhythm and the propensity to behave aggressively in male rats. J Neuroendocrinol 2000; 12: 937-40.

  83. Kruk MR, Halasz J, Meelis W, Haller J. Fast positive feedback between the adrenocortical stress response and a brain mechanism involved in aggressive behavior. Behav Neurosci 2004; 118: 1062-70.

  84. MacLean PD. The triune brain in evolution. role in paleocerebral functions. New York: Plenum; 1989, p. x + 672.




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