medigraphic.com
ISSN 0188-9796 (Impreso)

2006, Número 2

<< Anterior Siguiente >>

Rev Endocrinol Nutr 2006; 14 (2)


Tratamiento de la hipertensión arterial en el paciente con diabetes mellitus tipo 2

Rodríguez-Carranza SI, Aguilar-Salinas CA

Idioma: Español
Referencias bibliográficas: 99
Paginas: 59-72
Archivo PDF: 172.95 Kb.


RESUMEN

La asociación de hipertensión arterial y diabetes mellitus tipo 2 aumenta el riesgo de complicaciones micro y macrovasculares y es responsable de la mayoría de los casos de insuficiencia renal crónica y de morbimortalidad cardiovascular. Se sabe que el tratamiento oportuno y eficaz de la hipertensión arterial protege la función renal y disminuye el riesgo de eventos cardiovasculares; asimismo, que el control farmacológico de la presión arterial en el paciente diabético se puede lograr con inhibidores del sistema renina-angiotensina, diuréticos, inhibidores del sistema nervioso simpático, o con bloqueadores de los canales de calcio, teniendo algunos de ellos beneficios adicionales a la reducción de presión arterial. Diversos estudios revelan que la reducción de la presión arterial a cifras ‹ 130/80 mmHg es el factor principal para disminuir las complicaciones micro y macrovasculares de los diabéticos hipertensos, ya que mejora la excreción urinaria de albúmina, la función endotelial y disminuye la actividad inflamatoria, independientemente del fármaco utilizado. Se concluye que el tratamiento antihipertensivo del paciente diabético debe considerar como esencial el control satisfactorio de la presión arterial, estar dirigido a prevenir el daño en órganos blanco y tener en cuenta el nivel económico del paciente. La combinación inicial más costo-efectiva es la de un IECA y un diurético, o un IECA y un β-bloqueador selectivo, los cuales brindan protección cardiovascular y renal apropiadas.


REFERENCIAS (EN ESTE ARTÍCULO)

  1. American Diabetes Association. Treatment of Hypertension in Adults with Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2003; 26: S80-S82.

  2. Adler AI, Stevens RJ, Manley SE, Bilous RW, Cull CA, Holman RR; UKPDS Group. Development and progression of nephropathy in type 2 diabetes: the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS 64). Kidney Int 2003; 63: 225-232.

  3. Deedwania PC. Diabetes and hypertension, the deadly duet: importance, therapeutic strategy, and selection of drug therapy. Cardiol Clin 2005; 23: 139-152.

  4. Vijan S, Hayward RA. Treatment of hypertension in type 2 diabetes mellitus: blood pressure goals, choice of agents, and setting priorities in diabetes care. Ann Intern Med 2003; 138: 593-602.

  5. Arauz-Pacheco C, Parrott MA, Raskin P. The treatment of hypertension in adult patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care 2002; 25: 134-147.

  6. Varughese GI, Lip GYH. Hypertension in patients with type-II diabetes: relation to urinary albumin excretion, endothelial function and inflammation. J Hum Hypertens 2005; 19: 421-424.

  7. Aguilar-Salinas C, Velázquez Monroy O, Gómez Pérez FJ, González Chávez A, Lara Esqueda A, Molina Cuevas V, Rull Rodrigo JA, Tapia Conyer R; Encuesta Nacional de Salud 2000 Group. Characteristics of patients with type 2 diabetes in Mexico, results from a large population-based nation wide survey. Diabetes Care 2003; 26: 2021-2026.

  8. Aguilar-Salinas C, Rojas R, Gómez PFJ, García E, Valles V, Ríos TJM, Franco A, Olaiz G, Sepúlveda J, Rull JA. Prevalence and characteristics of early onset type 2 diabetes in Mexico. Am J Med 2002; 113: 569-574.

  9. Stratton IM, Adler AI, Neil HA, Matthews DR, Manley SE, Cull CA, Hadden D, Turner RC, Holman RR. Association of glycaemia with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 35): prospective observational study. Brit Med J 2000; 321: 405-412.

  10. Srikanth S, Deedwania P. Comprehensive risk reduction of cardiovascular risk factors in the diabetic patient: an integrated approach. Cardiol Clin 2005; 23: 193-210.

  11. Berlowitz DR, Ash AA, Hickey EC, Glickman M, Friedman R, Kader B. Hypertension management in patients with diabetes. The need for more aggressive therapy. Diabetes Care 2003; 26: 355-359.

  12. Bakris GL, Williams M, Dworkin L, Elliot WJ, Epstein M, Toto R, Tuttle K, Douglas T, Hsueh W, Sowers J. Preserving renal function in adults with hypertension and diabetes: a consensus approach. National Kidney Foundation Hypertension and Diabetes Executive Committees Working Group. Am J Kidney Dis 2000; 36: 646-661.

  13. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Cost effectiveness analysis of improved blood pressure control in hypertensive patients with type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 40. Brit Med J 1998; 12(317): 720-726.

  14. Mancia G. The association of hypertension and diabetes: prevalence, cardiovascular risk and protection by blood pressure reduction. Acta Diabetol 2005; 42(Suppl 1): S17-S25.

  15. Deckert T, Fedlt-Rasmussen B, Borch-Johnsen K, Jensen T, Kofoed-Enevoldsen A. Albuminuria reflects widespread vascular damage. The Steno hypothesis. Diabetologia 1989; 32: 219-226.

  16. Mathiesen ER, Ronn B, Jensen T, Storm B, Deckert T. Relationship between blood pressure and urinary albumin excretion in development of microalbuminuria. Diabetes 1990; 39: 245-249.

  17. Viberti CG, Keen H, Wiseman MJ. Raised arterial pressure in parents of proteinuric insulin-dependent diabetics. BMJ 1987; 295: 515-517.

  18. Krolewski AS, Canessa M, Warram JH, Laffel LMB, Christlieb AR, Knowler WC, Rand LI. Predisposition to hypertension and susceptibility to renal disease in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1988; 318: 140-145.

  19. Dobesh PP. Managing hypertension in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Health-Syst Pharm 2006; 63: 1140-1149.

  20. Whaley-Connell A, Sowers JR. Hypertension management in type 2 diabetes mellitus: recommendations of the Joint National Committee VII. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am 2005; 34: 63-75.

  21. Knowler WC, Nelson RG, Pettitt DJ. Diabetes, hypertension and Kidney disease in Pima Indians. The Kidney and hypertension in diabetes mellitus. Edited by Carl Erik Mogensen, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 3rd edition, 1997, USA.

  22. Atkins R, Briganti EM, Lewis JB, Hunsicker LG, Braden G, Champion de Crespigny PH, DeFerrari G, Drury P, Locatelli F, Wiegmann TB, Lewis EJ. Proteinuria reduction and progression to renal failure in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and overt nephropathy. Am J Kid Dis 2005; 45: 281-287.

  23. Flack JM, Peters R, Shafi T, Alrefai H, Nasser SA, Crook E. Prevention of hypertension and its complications: theoretical basis and guidelines for treatment. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003; 14: S92-S98.

  24. Gabriely I, Man Yang X, Cases JA, Hui Ma X, Rossetti L, Barzilai N. Hyperglycemia modulate angiotensinogen gene expression. AJP-Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol 2001; 281: R795-R802.

  25. Mogensen CE, Neldman S, Tikkanen I, Oren S, Viskoper R, Watts RW, Cooper ME. Randomized controlled trial of dual blockade of renin-angiotensin system in patients with hypertension, microalbuminuria, and non-insulin dependent diabetes: the candesartan and lisinopril microalbuminuria (CALM) study. BMJ 2000; 321: 1440-1444.

  26. Rossing K, Christensen PK, Jensen BR, Parving HH. Dual blockade of the renin-angiotensin system in diabetic nephropathy: A randomized double-blind crossover study. Diabetes Care 2002; 25: 95-100.

  27. DeFronzo RA, Ferrannini E. Insulin resistance. A multifaceted syndrome responsible for NIDDM, obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Diabetes Care 1991; 14: 173-194.

  28. Lindsay RS, Pedersen SB. Cardiovascular risk associated with the metabolic syndrome. Curr Diab Rep 2004; 4: 63-68.

  29. Kahn R, Buse J, Ferrannini E, Stern M. The metabolic syndrome: time for a critical appraisal. Joint statement from the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2005; 28: 2289-2299.

  30. Sacks FM, Svetky LP, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Bray GA, Harsha D, Obarzanek E, Conlin PR, Miller ER 3rd, Simons-Morton DG, Karanja N, Lin PH; DASH-sodium Collaborative Research Group. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-sodium Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 3-10.

  31. IDF Clinical Guidelines Task Force. Global Guideline for type 2 Diabetes: recommendations for standard, comprehensive, minimal care. Diabetic Medicine 2006; 23: 579-593.

  32. Wieber SJ. The cardiac consequences of the obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome. The Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine 2005; 72: 10-12.

  33. Robinson GV, Stradling JR, Davies RJO. Obstructive sleep apnoea/hypopnoea syndrome and hypertension. Thorax 2004; 59: 1084-1094.

  34. Perros P, McCrimmon RJ, Shaw G, Frier BM. Frequency of thyroid dysfunction in diabetic patients: value of annual screening. Diabet Med 1995; 12: 622-627.

  35. Danzi S, Klein I. Thyroid hormone and blood pressure regulation. Curr Hypertens Rep 2003; 5: 513-520.

  36. Fommei E, Iervasi G. The role of thyroid hormone in blood pressure homeostasis: evidence from short-term hypothyroidism in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87: 1996-2000.

  37. Parving HH, Gall MA, Skott P, Jorgensen HE, Lockheegaard H, Jorgensen P, Nielsen B, Larsen S. Prevalence and causes of albuminuria in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients. Kidney Int 1992; 41: 758-762.

  38. Bakris GL. The importance of blood pressure control in the patient with diabetes. Am J Med 2004; 116: 30S-38S.

  39. Schmieder RE. Optimizing therapeutic strategies to achieve renal and cardiovascular risk reduction in diabetic patients with angiotensin receptor blockers. J Hypertens 2005; 23: 905-911.

  40. Barnett AH. Inhibition of the renin-angiotensin system in diabetic patients-beyond HOPE. Brit J Cardiol 2004; 11: 123-127.

  41. Ong HT. Choice of antihypertensive drug in the diabetic patient. Medscape General Medicine 2005; 7: 1-8.

  42. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. BMJ 1998; 317: 703-713.

  43. Schram MT, van Ittersum FJ, Spoelstra-de Man A, van Dijk RA, Schalkwijk CG, Ijzerman RG, Twisk JW, Stehouever CD. Aggressive antihypertensive therapy based on hydrochlorotiazide, candesartan or lisinopril as initial choice in hypertensive type 2 diabetic individuals: effects on albumin excretion, endothelial function and inflammation in a double blind randomized clinical trial. J Hum Hypertens 2005; 19: 429-437.

  44. Rossing K, Jacobsen P, Pietraszek L, Parving H-H. Renoprotective effects of adding angiotensin II receptor blocker to maximal recommended doses of ACE inhibitor in diabetic nephropathy. A randomized double-blind crossover trial. Diabetes Care 2003; 26: 2268-2274.

  45. Cao Z, Bonnet F, Candido R, Nesteroff SP, Burns WC, Kawachi H, Shimizu F, Carey RM, Gasparo M, Cooper ME. Angiotensin type 2 receptor antagonism confers renal protection in a rat model of progressive renal injury. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002; 13: 1773-1787.

  46. Cao Z, Kelly DJ, Cox A, Casley D, Forbes JM, Martinello P, Dean R, Gilbert RE, Cooper ME. Angiotensin type 2 receptor is expressed in the adult rat kidney and promotes cellular proliferation and apoptosis. Kidney Int 2000; 58: 2437-2451.

  47. Wolf G, Ziyadeh FN, Thaiss F, Tomaszewski J, Caron RJ, Wenzel U, Zahner G, Helmchen U, Stahl RA. Angiotensin II stimulates expression of the chemokine RANTES in rat glomerular endothelial cells: role of the angiotensin type 2 receptor. J Clin Invest 1997; 100: 1047-1058.

  48. Mann JFE, Gerstein HC, Yi Q-L, Lonn EM, Hoogwerf BJ, Rashkow A, Yusuf S. Development of renal disease in people at high cardiovascular risk: results of the HOPE randomized study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003; 14: 641-647.

  49. Deferrari G, Ravera M, Berruti V, Leoncini G, Deferrari L. Optimizing therapy in the diabetic patient with renal disease: antihypertensive treatment. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004; 15: S6-S11.

  50. Ng DPK, Tai BC, Koh D, Tan KW, Chia KS. Angiotensin-I converting enzyme insertion/deletion polymorphism and its association with diabetic nephropathy: a meta-analysis of studies reported between 1994 and 2004 and comprising 14,727 subjects. Diabetologia 2005; 48: 1008-1016.

  51. Deferrari G, Ravera M, Deferrari L, Vettoretti S, Ratto E, Parodi D. Renal and cardiovascular protection in type 2 diabetes mellitus: angiotensin II receptor blockers. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002; 13: S224-S229.

  52. Brenner BM, Cooper ME, de Zeeuw D, Keane WF, Mitch WE, Parving H-H, Remuzzi G, Snappin SM, Zhang Z, Shahinfar S; RENAAL Study Investigators. Effects of losartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 861-869.

  53. Hansson L, Lindholm LH, Niskanen L, Lanke J, Hedner T, Niklason A, Luomanmaki K, Dahlof B, de Faire U, Marlin C, Karlberg BE, Wester PO, Bjorck JE. Effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition compared with conventional therapy on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in hypertension; the Captopril Prevention Project (CAPP) randomized trial. Lancet 1999; 353: 611-616.

  54. Weir MR. Angiotensin II receptor blockers: the importance of dose in cardiovascular and renal risk reduction. J Clin Hypertens 2004; 6: 315-323.

  55. Janke J, Engeli S, Gorzelniak K, Luft FC, Sharma AM. Mature adipocytes inhibit in vitro differentiation of human preadipocytes via angiotensin type 1 receptors. Diabetes 2002; 51: 1699-1707.

  56. Cheung BM, Cheung GT, Lauder IJ, Lau CP, Kumana CR. Meta-analysis of large outcome trials of angiotensin receptor blockers in hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 2005; (Epub ahead of print).

  57. Piechowski-Jozwiak B, Bogousslavsky J. Antihypertensive and lipid lowering treatment in stroke prevention: current state and future. Acta Neurol Belg 2005; 105: 57-61.

  58. Lindholm LH, Ibsen H, Dahlof B, Devereux RB, Beevers G, de Faire U, Fyhrquist F, Julius S, Kieldsen SE, Kristiansson K, Lederballe-Pedersen O, Nieminem MS, Amvik P, Oparil S, Wedel H, Aurup P, Edelman K, Snappin S; LIFE Study Group. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in patients with diabetes in the Losartan Intervention for Endpoint reduction in hypertension study (LIFE): a randomized trial against atenolol. Lancet 2002; 359: 1004-1010.

  59. Adler AI, Stratton IM, Neil HA, Yudkin JS, Matthews DR, Cull CA, Wright AD, Turner RC, Holman RR. Association of systolic blood pressure with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 36): prospective observational study. Brit Med J 2000; 321: 412-419.

  60. Lindholm LH, Hansson L, Ekbom T, Dahlof B, Lanke J, Linjer E, Schersten B, Wester PO, Hedner T, de Faire U. Comparison of antihypertensive treatments in preventing cardiovascular events in elderly diabetic patients: results from the Swedish Trial in Old Patients with Hypertension-2. STOP Hypertension-2 Study Group. J Hypertens 2000; 18(11): 1671-1675.

  61. Weber MA, Julius S, Kjeldsen SE, Brunner HR, Ekman S, Hansson L, Tua T, Zaragh JH, McInnes GT, Mitchell L, Plat F, Schork MA, Smith B, Zanchetti A. Blood pressure dependent and independent effects of antihypertensive treatment on clinical events in the VALUE Trial. Lancet 2004; 363: 2049-2051.

  62. Julius S, Kjeldsen SE, Weber M, Brunner HR, Ekman S, Hansson L, Hua T, Laragh JH, McInnes GT, Mitchell L, Plat F, Schork MA, Smith B, Zanchetti A; A VALUE trial group. Outcomes in hypertensive patients at high cardiovascular risk treated with regimens based on valsartan or amlodipine: the VALUE randomized trial. Lancet 2004; 363: 2022-2031.

  63. Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialist’s Collaboration. Effects of ACE inhibitors, calcium antagonists, and other blood-pressure-lowering drugs: results of prospectively designed overviews of randomized trials. Lancet 2000; 356: 1955-1964.

  64. Effects of different blood pressure-lowering regimens on major cardiovascular events in individuals with and without diabetes mellitus. Results of prospectively designed overviews of randomized trials. Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialists’ Collaboration. Arch Intern Med 2005; 165: 1410-1419.

  65. Barnett AH, Bain SC, Bouter P, Karlberg B, Madsbad S, Jervell J, Mustonen J. Diabetics exposed to telmisartan and enalapril study group. Angiotensin-receptor blockade versus converting-enzyme inhibition in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1952-1961.

  66. Passmore, AP, Whitehead, EM, Crawford, V, McVeigh GE, Johnston GD. The antihypertensive and metabolic effects of low and conventional dose cyclopenthiazide in type II diabetics with hypertension. Q J Med 1991; 81: 919-928.

  67. Harper, R, Ennis, CN, Heaney, AP, Sheridan B, Gormley M, Atkinson AB, Johnston GD, Bell PM. A comparison of the effects of low- and conventional-dose thiazide diuretic on insulin action in hypertensive patients with NIDDM. Diabetologia 1995; 38: 853-859.

  68. Whelton PK, Barzilay J, Cushman WC, Davis BR, Ilamathi E, Kostis JB, Leenen FH, Louis GT, Margolis KL, Mathis DE, Moloo J, Nwachuku C, Panebianco D, Panish DC, Pressel S, Simmons OL, Thadani U; ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. Clinical outcomes in antihypertensive treatment of type 2 diabetes, impaired fasting glucose concentration, and normoglycemia. Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). Arch Intern Med 2005; 165: 1401-1409.

  69. Rahman M, Pressel S, Davis BR, Nwachuku C, Wright JT, Whelton PK, Barsilay J, Batuman V, Eckfeldt JH, Farber M, Henriquez M, Kopyt N, Louis GT, Sakiayen M, Stanford C, Walwarth C, Ward H, Weigmann T. Renal outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients treated with an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or a calcium channel blocker vs a diuretic. Arch Intern Med 2005; 165: 936-946.

  70. Lacourciere Y, Nadeau A, Poirier L, Tancrede G. Captopril or conventional therapy in hypertensive type II diabetics: three year analysis. Hypertension 1993; 21: 786-794.

  71. Curb JD, Pressel SL, Cutler JA, Savage PJ, Applegate WB, Black H, Carmen G, Davis BR, Frost PH, Gonzalez N, Guthrie G, Oberman A, Rutan GH, Stamler J. Effect of diuretic-based antihypertensive treatment on cardiovascular disease risk in older diabetic patients with isolated systolic hypertension. Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program Cooperative Research Group. JAMA 1996; 276: 1886-1892.

  72. Marre M, Puig JG, Kokot F, Fernandez M, Jermendy G, Opie L, Moyseev V, Scheen A, Ionescu-Tirgoviste C, Saldaña MH, Halabe A, Williams B, Mion Junior O, Ruiz M, Hermansen K, Tuohmileto J, Finizola B, Gallois Y, Amouyel P, Ollivier JP, Asmar R. Equivalence of indapamide SR and enalapril on microalbuminuria reduction in hypertensive patients with type 2 diabetes: the NESTOR Study. J Hypertens 2004; 22: 1613-1622.

  73. Kostis JB, Wilson AC, Freudenberger RS, Cosgrove NM, Pressel SL, Davis BR. Long-term effect of diuretic-based therapy on fatal outcomes in subjects with isolated systolic hypertension with and without diabetes. Am J Cardiol 2005; 95: 29-35.

  74. Rossing K, Schjoedt KJ, Smidt UM, Boomsma F, Parving HH. Beneficial effects of adding spironolactone to recommended antihypertensive treatment in diabetic nephropathy. A randomized, double-masked, cross-over study. Diabetes Care 2005; 28: 2106-2112.

  75. Jacob S, Henriksen EJ. Metabolic properties of vasodilating b-blockers: management and considerations for hypertensive diabetic patients and patients with the metabolic syndrome. J Clin Hypertens 2004; 6: 690-698.

  76. Bakris GL, Fonseca V, Katholi RE, McGill JB, Messerli FH, Phillips RA, Raskin P, Wright JT Jr, Oakes R, Lukas MA, Anderson KN, Bells DS; GEMINIS Investigators. Metabolic effects of carvedilol vs metoprolol in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2004; 292: 2227-2236.

  77. Nielsen FS, Rossing P, Gall MA, Skott P, Smidt UM, Parving HH. Long-term effect of lisinopril and atenolol on kidney function in hypertensive NIDDM subjects with diabetic nephropathy. Diabetes 1997; 46: 1182-1188.

  78. Giugliano D, Acampora R, Marfella R, De Rosa N, Ziccardi P, Ragone R, De Angelis L, D´Onofrio F. Metabolic and cardiovascular effects of carvedilol and atenolol in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and hypertension. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1997; 126: 955-959.

  79. Fassbinder W, Quarder O, Waltz A. Treatment with carvedilol is associated with a significant reduction in microalbuminuria: a multicenter, randomized study. Int J Clin Pract 1999; 53: 519-520.

  80. Pinol C, Cobos A, Cases A, Esmatges E, Soler J, Closas J, Pascual R, Planas J. Nitrendipine and enalapril in the treatment of diabetic hypertensive patients with microalbuminuria. Kidney Int Suppl 1996; 55: S85-S87.

  81. Velussi M, Brocco E, Frigato F, Zolli M, Muollo G, Maioli M, Carraro A, Tonola G, Fresu P, Cernigai AM, Fioretto P, Nosadini R. Effects of cilazapril and amlodipine on kidney function in hypertensive NIDDM patients. Diabetes 1996; 45: 216-222.

  82. Yasuda G, Ando D, Hirawa N, Umemura S, Tochikubo O. Effects of losartan and amlodipine on urinary albumin excretion and ambulatory blood pressure in hypertensive type 2 diabetic patients with overt nephropathy. Diabetes Care 2005; 28: 1862-1868.

  83. Lewis EJ. The role of angiotensin II receptor blockers in preventing the progression of renal disease in patients with type 2 diabetes. Am J Hypertens 2002; 15: 123S-128S.

  84. Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Clarke WR, Berl T, Pohl MA, Lewis JB. Renoprotective effect of the angiotensin-receptor antagonist irbesartan in patients with nephropathy due to type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 851-860.

  85. Melbourne Diabetic Nephropathy Study Group: comparison between perindopril and nifedipine in hypertensive and normotensive diabetic patients with microalbuminuria. Brit Med J 1991; 302: 210-216.

  86. Estacio RO, Jeffers BW, Gifford N, Schrier RW. Effect of blood pressure control on diabetic microvascular complications in patients with hypertension and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2000; 23: B54-B64.

  87. Estacio RO, Jeffers BW, Hiatt WR, Biggerstaff SL, Gifford N, Schrier RW. The effect of nisoldipine as compared with enalapril on cardiovascular outcomes in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes and hypertension. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 645-654.

  88. Tatti P, Paahron M, Byington RP, DiMauro P, Strollo G, Strollo F. Outcome results of fosinopril versus amlodipine cardiovascular events randomized trial (FACET) in patients with hypertension and NIDDM. Diabetes Care 1998; 21: 597-603.

  89. Schrier RS, Estacio RA. Additional follow-up from the ABCD Trial in patients with type 2 diabetes and hypertension [letter]. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 1969.

  90. Yui Y, Sumiyoshi T, Kodama K, Hirayama A, Nonogi H, Kanmatsuse K, Origasa H, Jimura O, Ishii M, Saruta T, Arakawa K, Hosada S, Kawai C. Nifedipine Retard was as effective as angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors in preventing cardiac events in high-risk hypertensive patients with diabetes and coronary artery disease: the Japan Multicenter Investigation for Cardiovascular Diseases-B (JMIC-B) Subgroup Analysis. Hypertens Res 2004; 27: 449-456.

  91. Tuomilehto J. Preventing cardiovascular disease in hypertensive patients with type 2 diabetes: is there a superior antihypertensive therapy? J Hypertens 2000; 18: 1553-1556.

  92. Phizackerley DG. ASCOT: a tale of two treatment regimens: don’t lose your head over ASCOT. BMJ 2005; 331: 1022.

  93. Dahlof B, Sever PS, Poulter NR, Wedel H, Beevers DG, Caulfield M, Collins R, Kjeldsen SE, Kristinsson A, Mclnnes GT, Mehlsen J, Nieminen M, O´Brien E, Ostergen J; ASCOT Investigators. Prevention of cardiovascular events with an antihypertensive regimen of amlodipine adding perindopril as required versus atenolol adding bendroflumethiazide as required, in the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial-Blood Pressure Lowering Arm (ASCOT-BPLA): a multicentre randomized controlled trial. Lancet 2005; 366: 895-906.

  94. Williams B. ASCOT Hold on to your horses. Br J Cardiol 2005; 12: 336-338.

  95. Pepine CJ, Handberg EM, Cooper-DeHoff RM, Marks RG, Kowey P, Messerli FH, Mancia G, Cangiano JL, Garcia-Barreto D, Keltai M, Erdine S, Bristol HA, Kolb HR, Bakins GL, Cohen JD; Armley WW; INVEST Investigators. A calcium-antagonist vs a non-calcium antagonist hypertension treatment strategy for patients with coronary artery disease. The International Verapamil-Trandolapril Study (INVEST): a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2003; 290: 2805-2816.

  96. Pahor M, Psaty BM, Alderman MH, Applegate WB, Williamson JD, Cavazzini C, Furberg CD. Health outcomes associated with calcium antagonists compared with other first-line antihypertensive therapies: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Lancet 2000; 356: 1949-1954.

  97. Waters D, Lesperance J, Francetich M, Causey D, Theroux P, Chiang YK, Hudon G, Lemarbre L, Reitman M, Joyal M. A controlled clinical trial to asses the effect of a calcium channel blocker upong the progression of coronary atherosclerosis. Circulation 1990; 82: 1940-1953.

  98. Pitt B, Byington RP, Furberg CD, Hunninghake DB, Manani GB, Miller ME, Riley W for the PREVENT trial. Effect of amlodipine on the progression of atherosclerosis and the occurrence of clinical events. Circulation 2000; 102: 1503-1510.

  99. Zanchetti A, Bond MG, Hennig M, Neiss A, Mancia G, Dal Palu C, Hansson L, Magnani B, Rahn KH, Reid JL, Rodicio J, Safar M, Eckes L, Rizzini P. Calcium antagonist lacidipine slows down progression of asymptomatic carotid atherosclerosis: principal results of the European Lacidipine Study on Atherosclerosis (ELSA), a randomized, double-blind, long-term trial. Circulation 2002; 106: 2422-2427.




2020     |     www.medigraphic.com