Parkman HP, Hasler WL, Fisher RS

Idioma: Español
Referencias bibliográficas: 285
Paginas: 325-360
Archivo PDF: 190.33 Kb.

FRAGMENTO

El vaciamiento gástrico normal refleja un esfuerzo coordinado entre diferentes regiones del estómago y el duodeno y, asimismo, una modulación extrínseca por el sistema nervioso central (SNC) y factores del intestino distal. Los fenómenos importantes relacionados con el vaciamiento gástrico normal incluyen relajación del fondo a fin de acomodar el alimento, contracciones antrales para la trituración de partículas alimentarias grandes, relajación pilórica a fin de permitir la salida del alimento del estómago y coordinación antropiloroduodenal de los fenómenos motores. La dismotilidad gástrica incluye retraso del vaciamiento del estómago (gastroparesia), vaciamiento gástrico acelerado (como se observa en el síndrome de vaciamiento rápido) y otras disfunciones motoras, por ejemplo, el deterioro de la distensión del fondo que se encuentra más comúnmente en la dispepsia funcional. Aún no se define claramente la importancia de las disritmias gástricas. Los trastornos de la motilidad del estómago pueden presentarse con una gama de síntomas de gravedad variable. En esta revisión técnica se valora sistemáticamente la literatura de investigación clínica y se proporcionan recomendaciones para el diagnóstico y tratamiento de pacientes con gastroparesia. La literatura publicada revisada por compañeros sobre gastroparesia se investigó en PubMed utilizando las palabras clave gastroparesia, motilidad gástrica y dismotilidad gástrica. En esta investigación se incluyeron artículos de referencia de manuscritos publicados, capítulos de libros y resúmenes recientes de reuniones nacionales e internacionales.

REFERENCIAS (EN ESTE ARTÍCULO)

1. Soykan I, Sivri B, Sarosiek I, Kierran B, McCallum RW. Demography, clinical characteristics, psychological profiles, treatment and long-term follow-up of patients with gastroparesis. Dig Dis Sci 1998; 43: 2398-404.

2. Parkman HP, Schwartz SS. Esophagitis and other gastrointestinal disorders associated with diabetic gastroparesis. Arch Intern Med 1987; 147: 1477-80.

3. Blum ME, Lichtenstein GR. A new endoscopic technique for the removal of gastric phytobezoars. Gastrointest Endosc 2000; 52: 404-8.

4. Stanghellini V, Tosetti C, Paternico A, Barbara G, Morselli-Labate AM, Monetti N, Marengo M, Corinaldesi R. Risk indicators of delayed gastric emptying of solids in patients with functional dyspepsia. Gastroenterology 1996; 110: 1036-42.

5. Sarnelli G, Caenepeel P, Geypens B, Janssens J, Tack J. Symptoms associated with impaired gastric emptying of solids and liquids in functional dyspepsia. Am J Gastroenterol 2003; 98: 783-8.

6. Revicki DA, Rentz AM, Dubois D, Kahrilas P, Stanghellini V, Talley NJ, Tack J. Development and validation of a patient-assessed gastroparesis symptoms severity measure: the Gas-troparesis Cardinal Symptom Index. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2003; 18: 141-50.

7. Horowitz M, Harding PE, Maddox AF, Wishart JM, Akkermans LM, Chatterton BE, Shearman DJ. Gastric and oesophageal emptying in patients with type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 1989; 32: 151-9.

8. Koch KL, Stern RM, Stewart WR, Vasey MW. Gastric emptying and gastric myoelectrical activity in patients with diabetic gastroparesis: effect of long-term domperidone treatment. Am J Gastroenterol 1989; 84: 1069-75.

9. Talley NJ, Shuter B, McCrudden G, Jones M, Hoschl R, Piper DW. Lack of association between gastric emptying of solids and symptoms in nonulcer dyspepsia. J Clin Gastroenterol 1989; 11: 625-30.

10. Jones KL, Russo A, Stevens JE, Wishart JM, Berry MK, Horowitz M. Predictors of delayed gastric emptying in diabetes. Diabetes Care 2001; 24: 1264-9.

11. Jian R, Ducrot F, Ruskone A, Chaussade S, Rambaud JC, Modigliani R, Rain JD, Bernier JJ. Symptomatic, radionuclide and therapeutic assessment of chronic idiopathic dyspepsia. Dig Dis Sci 1989; 34: 657-64.

12. Hoogerwerf WA, Pasricha PJ, Kalloo AN, Schuster MM. Pain: the overlooked symptom in gastroparesis. Am J Gastroenterol 1999; 94: 1029-33.

13. Lemann M, Dederding JP, Flourie B, Franchisseur C, Rambaud JC, Jian R. Abnormal perception of visceral pain in response to gastric distension in chronic idiopathic dyspepsia. Dig Dis Sci 1991; 36: 1249-54.

14. Samsom M, Salet GAM, Roelofs JMM, Akkermans LM, Van-berge- Henegouwen GP, Smout AJ. Compliance of the proximal stomach and dyspeptic symptoms in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Dig Dis Sci 1995; 40: 2037-42.

15. Datz FL. Christian PE, Moore J. Gender-related differences in gastric emptying. J Nucl Med 1987; 28: 1204-7.

16. Gill RC, Murphy PD, Hooper HR, Bowes KL, Kingma YJ. Effect of the menstrual cycle on gastric emptying. Digestion 1987; 36: 168-74.

17. Bytzer P, Talley NJ, Leemon M, Young LJ, Jones MP, Horowitz M. Prevalence of gastrointestinal symptoms associated with diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med 2001; 161: 1989-96.

18. Maleki D, Locke GR, Camilleri M, Zinsmeister AR, Yawn BP, Leibson C, Melton J III. Gastrointestinal tract symptoms among persons with diabetes mellitus in the community. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 2808-16.

19. Enck P, Dubois D, Marquis P. Quality of life in patients with upper gastrointestinal symptoms: results from the Domestic/International Gastroenterology Surveillance Study (DIGEST). Scand J Gastroenterol 1999; 34(Suppl. 231): 48-54.

20. Farup CE, Williams GR, Leidy NK, Helbers L, Murray M, Quigley EMM. Effect of domperidone on the health-related quality of life of patients with symptoms of diabetic gastroparesis. Diabetes Care 1998; 21: 1699-706.

21. Bell RA, Jones-Vessey K, Summerson JH. Hospitalizations and outcomes for diabetic gastroparesis in North Carolina. South Med J 2002; 95: 1297-9.

22. Abell TL, Luo J, Cutts TF, Mealer W, Kores R, Rashed H. Gastric electrical stimulation is superior to standard pharmacological treatment in reducing health care costs and hospital stays and in improving quality of life in patients with severe upper GI motor disorders (abstr). Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 235: s258.

23. Botoman VA, Rao S, Dunlap P, Abell T, Falk GW. Motility and GI function studies billing and coding guidelines. Am J Gastroentero l 2003; 98: 1228-36.

24. Quigley EMM, Hasler W, Parkman HP. AGA technical review on nausea and vomiting. Gastroenterology 2001; 120: 263-86.

25. Herlinger H. Guide to imaging of the small bowel. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1995; 24: 309-29.

26. Hornbuckle K, Barnett JL. The diagnosis and work-up of the patient with gastroparesis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2000; 30: 117-24.

27. Parkman HP, Harris AD, Krevsky B, Urbain JL, Maurer AH, Fisher RS. Gastroduodenal motility and dysmotility: update on tech-niques available for evaluation. Am J Gastroenterol 1995; 90: 869-92.

28. Malagelada J-R, Rees WDW, Mazzotta LJ, Go VL. Gastric motor abnormalities in diabetic and postvagotomy gastroparesis: effect of metoclopramide and bethanechol. Gastroenterology 1980; 78: 286-93.

29. Galil MA, Critchley M, Mackie CR. Isotope gastric emptying tests in clinical practice: expectation, outcome, and utility. Gut 1993; 34: 916-19.

30. Tougas GH, Eaker EY, Abell TL, Abrahamsson H, Boivin PL, Chen J, Hocking MP, Quigley EM, Koch KL, Tokayer AZ, Stanghellini V, Chen Y, Huizinga JD, Ryden J, Bourgeois I, McCallum RW. Assessment of gastric emptying using a low fat meal: establishment of international control values. Am J Gastroenterol 2000; 95: 1456-62.

31. Kim D-Y, Myung S-J, Camilleri M. Novel testing of human gastric motor and sensory functions: Rationale, methods, and potential applications in clinical practice. Am J Gastroenterol 2000; 95: 3365-73.

32. Lartigue S, Bizais Y, Des Varannes SB, Murat A, Pouliquen B, Galmiche JP. Inter- and intrasubject variability of solid and liquid gastric emptying parameters. A scintigraphic study in healthy subjects and diabetic patients. Dig Dis Sci 1994; 39: 109-15.

33. Thomforde GM, Camilleri M, Phillips SF, Forstrom LA. Evaluation of an inexpensive screening scintigraphic test of gastric emptying. J Nucl Med 1995; 36: 93-6.

34. Guo J-P, Maurer AH, Fisher RS, Parkman HP. Extending gastric emptying scintigraphy from two to four hours detects more patients with gastroparesis. Dig Dis Sci 2001; 46: 24-9.

35. Camilleri M, Hasler W, Parkman HP, Quigley EM, Soffer E. Measurement of gastroduodenal motility in the GI laboratory. Gastroenterology 1998; 115: 747-62.

36. Ghoos YF, Maes BD, Geypens BJ, Mys G, Hiele MI, Rutgeerts PJ, Vantrappen G. Measurement of gastric emptying rate of solids by means of a carbon-labeled octanoic acid breath test. Gastroenterology 1993; 104: 1640-7.

37. Choi M-G, Camilleri M, Burton DD, Zinsmeister AR, Forstrom LA, Nair KS. Reproducibility and simplification of 13 C-octanoic acid breath test for gastric emptying of solids. Am J Gastroenterol 1998; 93: 92-8.

38. Bromer MQ, Kantor SN, Wagner DA, Knight LC, Maurer AH, Parkman HP. Simultaneous measurement of gastric emptying with a simple muffin meal using 13C-octanoate breath test and scintigraphy in normal subjects and patients with in dyspeptic symptoms. Dig Dis Sci 2002; 47: 1657-63.

39. Chen JZ, McCallum RW. Clinical applications of electrogastrography. Am J Gastroenterol 1993; 88: 1324-36.

40. Parkman HP, Hasler WL, Barnett JL, Eaker EY. Electrogastrography: a document prepared by the gastric section of the American Motility Society Clinical GI Motility Testing Task Force. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2003; 15: 488-97.

41. Chen JD, Lin Z, Pan J, McCallum RW. Abnormal gastric myoelectrical activity and delayed gastric emptying in patients with symptoms suggestive of gastroparesis. Dig Dis Sci 1996; 41: 1538-45.

42. Parkman HP, Miller MA, Trate DM, Knight LC, Brown KL, Maurer AH, Fisher RS. Electrogastrography and gastric emptying scintigraphy are complementary for assessment of dyspepsia. J Clin Gastroenterol 1997; 24: 214-19.

43. Jebbink RJA, Samsom M, Bruijs PPM, Bravenboer B, Akkermans LM, Van Berge-Henegouwen GP, Smout AJ. Hyperglycemia induces abnormalities of gastric myoelectrical activity in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Gastroenterology 1994; 107: 1390-7.

44. Fraser RJ, Horowitz M, Maddox AF, Dent J. Postprandial antropyloroduodenal motility and gastric emptying in gastroparesis-effects of cisapride. Gut 1994; 35: 172-8.

45. Mearin F, Camilleri M, Malagelada J-R. Pyloric dysfunction in diabetics with recurrent nausea and vomiting. Gastroenterology 1986; 90: 1919-25.

46. Dooley CO, el Newihi HM, Zeidler A, Valenzuela JE. Abnormalities of the migrating motor complex in diabetics with autonomic neuropathy and diarrhea. Scand J Gastroenterol 1988; 23: 217-23.

47. Camilleri M, Malagelada J-R. Abnormal intestinal motility in diabetics with the gastroparesis syndrome. Eur J Clin Invest 1984; 14: 420-7.

48. Camilleri M, Brown ML, Malagelada J-R. Relationship between impaired gastric emptying and abnormal gastrointestinal motility. Gastroenterology 1986; 91: 94-9.

49. Camilleri M. Study of human gastroduodenojejunal motility-applied physiology in clinical practice. Dig Dis Sci 1993; 38: 785-94.

50. Frank JW, Sarr MG, Camilleri M. Use of gastroduodenal manometry to differentiate mechanical and functional intestinal obstruction: an analysis of clinical outcome. Am J Gastroenterol 1994; 89: 339-44.

51. O’Brien MD, Bruce BK, Camilleri M. The rumination syndrome: clinical features rather than manometric diagnosis. Gastroenterology 1995;108: 1024-9.

52. Hyman PE, DiLorenzo C, McAdams L, Flores AF, Tomomasa T, Garvey TO. Predicting the clinical response to cisapride in children with chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction. Am J Gastroenterol 1993; 88: 832-6.

53. Verne GN, Eaker EY, Hardy E, Sninsky CA. Effect of octreotide and erythromycin on idiopathic and scleroderma-associated intestinal pseudoobstruction. Dig Dis Sci 1995; 40: 1892-901.

54. Soffer E, Thongsawat S. Clinical value of duodenojejunal manometry. Its usefulness in diagnosis and management of pa-tients with gastrointestinal symptoms. Dig Dis Sci 1996; 41: 859-63.

55. Benini L, Sembenini C, Heading RC, Giorgetti PG, Montemezzi S, Zamboni M, DiBenedetto P, Brighenti F, Vantini L. Simultaneous measurement of gastric emptying of a solid meal by ultrasound and by scintigraphy. Am J Gastroenterol 1999; 94: 2861-5.

56. Kuiken SD, Samsom M, Camilleri M, Mullan BP, Burton DD, Kost CJ, Hardyman TJ, Brinkmann BH, O’Connor MK. Development of a test to measure gastric accommodation in humans. Am J Physiol 1999; 277: G1217-G1221.

57. Kim D-Y, Delgado-Aros S, Camilleri M, Samsom M, Murray JA, O’Connor MK, Brinkman BH, Stephens DH, Lighuani SS, Burton DD. Noninvasive measurement of gastric accommodation in patients with idiopathic nonulcer dyspepsia. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96: 3099-105.

58. Koch KL, Hong S-P, Xu L. Reproducibility of gastric myoelectrical activity and the water load test in patients with dysmotility-like dyspepsia symptoms and in control subjects. J Clin Gastroenterol 2000; 31: 125-9.

59. Tack J, Caenepeel P, Piessevaux H, Cuomo R, Janssens J. Assessment of meal induced gastric accommodation by a sati-ety drinking test in health and in severe functional dyspepsia. Gut 2003; 52: 1271-7.

60. Chial HJ, Camilleri M, Delgado-Aros S, Burton D, Thomforde G, Ferber I, Camilleri M. A nutrient drink test to assess maximum tolerated volume and postprandial symptoms: effects of gender, body mass index and age in health. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2002; 14: 249-53.

61. Kong M-F, Horowitz M, Jones KL, Wishart JM, Harding PE. Natural history of diabetic gastroparesis. Diabetes Care 1998; 22: 503-7.

62. Nowak TV, Johnson CP, Kalbfleisch JH, Roza AM, Wood CM, Weisbruch JP. Highly variable gastric emptying in patients with insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Gut 1995; 37: 23-9.

63. Schwartz JG, Green GM, Guan D, McMahan CA, Phillips WT. Rapid gastric emptying of a solid pancake meal in type II diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 1996; 19: 468-71.

64. Frank JW, Saslow SB, Camilleri M, Thomforde GM, Dinneen S, Rizza RA. Mechanism of accelerated gastric emptying of liquids and hyperglycemia in patients with type II diabetes mellitus. Gastroenterology 1995; 109: 755-65.

65. Horowitz M, Harding PE, Maddox AF, Maddern GJ, Collings PH, Chatterton BE, Wishart J, Shearman DJC. Gastric and oesophageal emptying in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1986; 1: 97-113.

66. Rayner CK, Samsom M, Jones KL, Horowitz M. Relationships of upper gastrointestinal motor and sensory function with glycemic control. Diabetes Care 2001; 24: 371-81.

67. Ishii K, Tanabe S, Mitsuhashi T, Saigenji K. Influence on glycemic control of improved diabetic gastroparesis by long-term cisapride therapy. Nippon Shokakibyo Gakkai Zasshi 1995; 92: 1724-33.

68. Stacher G, Schernthaner G, Francesconi M, Kopp HP, Bergmann H, Stacher-Janotta G, Weber U. Cisapride versus placebo for 8 weeks on glycemic control and gastric emptyng in insulin-dependent diabetes: a double blind cross-over trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84: 2357-62.

69. Pan DY, Chen GH, Chang CS, Ho KS, Poon SK, Huang CK, Kao CH, Wang SJ. Effect of oral erythromycin on patients with diabetic gastroparesis. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi (Taipei) 1995; 55: 447-71.

70. Melga P, Mansi C, Ciuchi E, Giusti R, Sciaba L, Prando R. Chronic administration of levosulpiride and glycemic control in IDDM patients with gastroparesis. Diabetes Care 1997; 20: 55-8.

71. Ueno N, Inui A, Asakawa A, Takao F, Tani S, Komatsu Y, Itoh Z, Kasuga M. Erythromycin improves glycaemic control in patients with type II diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 2000; 43: 411-15.

72. Braden B, Enghofer M, Schaub M, Usadel KH, Caspary WJ, Lembcke B. Long-term cisapride treatment improves diabetic gastroparesis but not glycaemic control. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2002; 16: 1341–6.

73. Lehmann R, Honegger RA, Feinle C, Fried M, Spinas GA, Schwizer W. Glucose control is not improved by accelerating gastric emptying in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus and gastroparesis. A pilot study with cisapride as a model drug. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2003; 111: 255-61.

74. Yoshida MM, Schuffler MD, Sumi SM. There are no morphologic abnormalities of the gastric wall or abdominal vagus in patients with diabetic gastroparesis. Gastroenterology 1988; 94: 907-14.

75. Duchen LW, Anjorin A, Watkins PJ, Mackay JD. Pathology of autonomic neuropathy in diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 1980; 92: 301-3.

76. Takahashi T, Nakamura K, Itoh H, Sima AA, Owyang C. Impaired expression of nitric oxide synthase in gastric myenteric plexus of spontaneously diabetic rats. Gastroenterology 1997; 113: 1535-44.

77. Ordog T, Takayama I, Cheung WK, Ward SM, Sanders KM. Remodeling of networks of interstitial cells of Cajal in a murine model of diabetic gastroparesis. Diabetes 2000; 49: 1731-9.

78. He CL, Soffer EE, Ferris CD, Walsh RM, Szurszewski JH, Farrugia G. Loss of interstitial cells of Cajal and inhibitory innervation in insulin-dependent diabetes. Gastroenterology 2001; 121: 427-34.

79. Ejskjaer NT, Bradley JL, Buxton-Thomas MS, Edmons HE, Howard ER, Purewa IT, Thomas PK, Watkins RJ. Novel surgical treatment and gastric pathology in diabetic gastroparesis. Dia-betic Med 1999; 16: 488-95.

80. Moscoso GJ, Driver M, Guy RJ. A form of necrobiosis and atrophy of smooth muscle in diabetic gastric autonomic neuropathy. Pathol Res Pract 1986; 181: 188-94.

81. Watkins CC, Sawa A, Jaffrey S, Blackshaw S, Barrow RK, Snyder SH, Ferris CD. Insulin restores neuronal nitric oxide synthase expression and function that is lost in diabetic gastropathy. J Clin Invest 2000; 106: 373-84.

82. Fraser RJ, Horowitz M, Maddox AF, Harding PE, Chatterton BE, Dent J. Hyperglycemia slows gastric emptying in type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 1990; 33: 675-80.

83. Lam WF, Masclee AAM, de Boer SY, Lamers CB. Hyperglycemia reduces gastric secretory and plasma pancreatic polypeptide responses to modified sham feeding in humans. Digestion 1993; 54: 48-53.

84. Mizuno Y, Oomura Y. Glucose responding neurons in the nucleus tractus solitarius of the rat: in vitro study. Brain Res 1984; 307: 109-16.

85. Hasler WL, Soudah HC, Dulai G, Owyang C. Mediation of hyperglycemia- evoked gastric slow-wave dysrhythmias by endogenous prostaglandins. Gastroenterology 1995;108: 727-36.

86. Jones KL Horowitz M, Berry M, Wishart JM, Guha S. Blood glucose concentrations influences postprandial fullness in IDDM. Diabetes Care 1997; 29: 1141-6.

87. Eagon JC, Miedema BW, Kelly KA. Postgastrectomy syndromes. Surg Clin North Am 1992; 72: 445-65.

88. Mathias JR, Fernandez A, Sninsky CA, Clech MH, Davis RH. Nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain after Roux-en-Y anastomosis: motility of the jejunal limb. Gastroenterology 1985; 88: 101-7.

89. Vassilakis JS, Xynos E, Kasapidis P, Chrysos E, Mantides A, Nicolopoulos N. The effect of floppy Nissen fundoplication on esophageal and gastric motility in gastroesophageal reflux. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1993; 177: 608-16.

90. Bais JE, Samsom M, Boudesteijn EA, van Rijk PP, Akkermans LM, Gooszen HG. Impact of delayed gastric emptying on the outcome of antireflux surgery. Ann Surg 2001; 234: 139-46.

91. Haque M, Pehlivanov N, Moncure M, Udobi K, Childs E, Sarosiek I, McCallum R. Is there a shift in symptomatology in patients after laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication? (abstr). Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96: S66.

92. Stanghellini V, Malagelada J-R. Gastric manometric abnormalities in patients with dyspeptic symptoms after fundoplication. Gut 1983; 24: 790-97.

93. Hunter RJ, Metz DC, Morris JB, Rothstein RD. Gastroparesis: a potential pitfall of laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication. Am J Gastroenterol 1996; 91: 2617-18.

94. Trus TL, Bax T, Richardson WS, Branum GD, Mauren SJ, Swan-strom LL, Hunter JG. Complications of laparoscopic paraesophageal hernia repair. J Gastrointest Surg 1997; 1: 221-8.

95. DeVault KR, Floch NR, Achem SR, Hinder RA. Vagal nerve dys-function before and after antireflux surgery (abstr). Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96: S10.

96. Lundell LR, Myers JC, Jamieson GG. Delayed gastric emptying and its relationship to symptoms of “gas bloat” after antireflux surgery. Eur J Surg 1994; 160: 161-6.

97. Mun EC, Blackburn GL, Matthews JB. Current status of medical and surgical therapy for obesity. Gastroenterology 2001; 120: 669-81.

98. Horowitz M, Cook DJ, Collins PJ, Harding PE, Hooper MJ, Walsh JF, Shearman DJC. Measurement of gastric emptying after gastric bypass surgery using radionuclides. Br J Surg 1982; 69: 655-7.

99. Balsiger BM, Poggio JL, Mai J, Kelly KA, Sarr MG. Ten and more years after vertical banded gastroplasty as primary operation for morbid obesity. J Gastrointest Surg 2000; 4: 598-605.

100. Mistiaen W, Vaneerdeweg W, Blockx P, Van Hee R, Hubens G, Bortier H, Harrisson F. Gastric emptying rate measurement after vertical banded gastroplasty. Obes Surg 2000; 10: 245-9.

101. Berkowitz N, Schulman LL, McGregor C, Markowitz D. Gastroparesis after lung transplant-potential role in postoperative respiratory complications. Chest 1995; 108: 1602-7.

102. Au J, Hawkins T, Venables C, Morritt G, Scott CD, Gascoigne AD, Corris PA, Hilton CJ, Dark JH. Upper gastrointestinal dysmotility in heart-lung transplant recipients. Ann Thorac Surg 1993; 55: 94-7.

103. Sodhi SS, Guo J-P, Maurer AH, O’Brien G, Srinivasan R, Parkman HP. Delayed gastric emptying after combined heart and lung transplantation. J Clin Gastroenterol 2002; 34: 34-9.

104. Zarate N, Mearin F, Wang XY, Hewlett B, Huizinga JD, Malagelada JR. Severe idiopathic gastroparesis due to neuronal and interstitial cells of Cajal degeneration: pathological findings and management. Gut 2003; 52: 966-70.

105. Bityutskiy LP, Soykan I, McCallum RW. Viral gastroparesis: a subgroup of idiopathic gastroparesis-clinical characteristics and long-term outcomes. Am J Gastroenterol 1997; 92: 1501-6.

106. Oh JJ, Kim CH. Gastroparesis after a presumed viral illness: clinical and laboratory features and natural history. Mayo Clin Proc 1990; 65: 636-42.

107. McCallum RW, Berkowitz DM, Lerner E. Gastric emptying in patients with gastroesophageal reflux. Gastroenterology 1981; 80: 285-91.

108. Keshavarzian A, Bushnell DL, Sontag S, Yegelwel EJ, Smid K. Gastric emptying in patients with severe reflux esophagitis. Am J Gastroenterol 1991; 86: 738-42.

109. Stacher G, Lenglinger J, Bergmann H, Schneider C, Hoffmann W, Wolfl G, Stacher-Janotta G. Gastric emptying: a contributory factor in gastrooesophageal reflux activity? Gut 2000; 47: 661-6.

110. Barnert JRA, Dumitrascu DL, Wienbeck M. Gastroesophageal reflux disease: emptying of the proximal and the distal stomach measured by ultrasonography (abstr). Gastroenterology 2001; 120: A460.

111. Vanderwinden J-M, Mailleux P, Schiffmann SN, Vanderhaeghen J-J, de Laet M-H. Nitric oxide synthase activity in infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis. N Engl J Med 1992; 327: 511-15.

112. Vanderwinden J-M, Liu H, de Laet M-H, Vanderhaeghen J-J. Study of the interstitial cells of Cajal in infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis. Gastroenterology 1996; 111: 279-88.

113. Vanderwinden J-M, Liu H, Menu R, Conreur J-L, de Laet M-H, Vanderhaeghen J-J. The pathology of infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis after healing. J Pediatr Surg 1996; 31: 1530-4.

114. Sun WM, Doran SM, Jones KL, Davidson G, Dent J, Horowitz M. Long-term effects of pyloromyotomy on pyloric motility and gastric emptying in humans. Am J Gastroenterol 2000; 95: 92-100.

115. Honein MA, Paulozzi LJ, Himelright IM, Lee B, Cragan JD, Patterson L, Correa A, Hall S, Erickson JD. Infantile hypertrophic stenosis after pertussis prophylaxis with erythromycin. Lancet 1999; 354: 2101-5.

116. SanFilippo A. Infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis related to ingestion of erythromycin estolate: a report of five cases. J Pediatr Surg 1976; 11: 177-80.

117. Anonymous. Hypertrophic pyloric stenosis in infants following pertussis prophylaxis with erythromycin-Knoxville, Tennessee, 1999. MMWR 1999; 48: 1117-20.

118. van Roggen JFG, van Krieken JHJM. Adult hypertrophic pyloric stenosis: case report and review of the literature. J Clin Pathol 1998; 51: 479-80.

119. Danikas D, Geis WP, Ginalis EM, Stratoulias C. Laparoscopic pyloroplasty in idiopathic hypertrophic pyloric stenosis in an adult. JSLS 2000; 4: 173-5.

120. Bonapace ES, Davidoff S, Krevsky B, Fisher RS, Parkman HP. Whole gut transit scintigraphy in the clinical evaluation of patients with upper and lower gastrointestinal symptoms. Am J Gastroenterol 2000; 95: 2838-47.

121. Caballero-Plasencia AM, Valenzuela-Barranco M, Herrerias-Gutierrez JM, Esteban-Carretero JM. Altered gastric emptying in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Eur J Nucl Med 1999; 26: 404-9.

122. Tjeerdsma HC, Smout AJPM, Akkermans LMA. Voluntary suppression of defecation delays gastric emptying. Dig Dis Sci 1993; 38: 832-6.

123. Casey KM, Quigley TM, Kozarek RA, Raker EJ. Lethal nature of ischemic gastropathy. Am J Surg 1993; 165: 646-9.

124. Liberski SM, Koch KL, Atnip RG, Stern RM. Ischemic gastropa-resis: resolution after revascularization. Gastroenterology 1990; 99: 252-7.

125. Sikora SS, Mital BR, Prasad KR, Das BK, Kaushik SP. Functional gastric impairment in carcinoma of the pancreas. Br J Surg 1995; 82: 1112-13.

126. Lee H-R, Lennon VA, Camilleri M, Prather CM. Paraneoplastic gastrointestinal motor dysfunction: clinical and laboratory characteristics. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96: 373-9.

127. Schuffler MD, Baird HW, Fleming CR, Bell CE, Bouldin TW, Malagelada JR, McGill DB, LeBauer SM, Abrams M, Love J. Intestinal pseudo-obstruction as the presenting manifestation of small-cell carcinoma of the lung. Ann Intern Med 1983; 98: 129-34.

128. Layer P, Demol P, Hotz J, Goebell H. Gastroparesis after radiation-successful treatment with carbachol. Dig Dis Sci 1986; 31: 1377-80.

129. Brand RE, DiBaise JK, Quigley EMM, Gobar LS, Harmaon KS, Lynch JC, Bierman PJ, Bishop MR, Tarantolo SR. Gastroparesis as a cause of nausea and vomiting after high-dose chemother-apy and haemopoietic stem-cell transplantation. Lancet 1998; 352: 1985.

130. Eagle DA, Gian V, Lauwers GY, Manivel JC, Moreb JS, Mastin S, Wingard JR. Gastroparesis following bone marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 2001; 28: 59-62.

131. Iftikhar S, Loftus EV. Gastroparesis after celiac plexus block. Am J Gastroenterol 1998; 93: 2223-5.

132. Chowdhury RS, Forsmark CE, Davis RH, Toskes PP, Verne GN. Prevalence of gastroparesis in patients with small duct chronic pancreatitis. Pancreas 2003; 26: 235-8.

133. Lu C-L, Chen C-Y, Chang F-Y, et al. Impaired gastric myoelectrical activity in patients with chronic pancreatitis (abstr). Dig Dis Sci 2001; 46: 692.

134. Collins CE, Francis JL, Thomas P, Henry RL, O’Loughlin EV. Gastric emptying time is faster in cystic fibrosis. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1997; 25: 492-8.

135. Van Vlem B, Schoonjans R, Vanholder R, De Vos M, Vandamme W, Van Laecke S, Lameire N. Delayed gastric emptying in dyspeptic chronic hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 2000; 36: 962-8.

136. De Schoenmakere G, Vanholder R, Rottey S, Duym P, Lameire N. Relationship between gastric emptying and clinical and biochemical factors in chronic haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001; 16: 1850-5.

137. Kebede D, Barthel JS, Singh A. Transient gastroparesis associated with cutaneous herpes zoster. Dig Dis Sci 1987; 32: 318-22.

138. Meeroff JC, Schreiber DS, Trier JS, Blacklow NR. Abnormal gastric motor function in viral gastroenteritis. Ann Intern Med 1980; 92: 370-3.

139. Nowak TV, Goddard M, Batteiger B, Cummings OW. Evolution of acute cytomegalovirus gastritis to chronic gastrointestinal dys-motility in a nonimmunocompromised adult. Gastroenterology 1999; 116: 953-8.

140. Vassallo M, Camilleri M, Caron BL, Low PA. Gastrointestinal motor dysfunction in acquired selective cholinergic dysautonomia associated with infectious mononucleosis. Gastroenterology 1991; 100: 252-8.

141. Van Thiel DH, Gavaler JS, Schade RR, Chien MC, Starzl TE. Cytomegalovirus infection and gastric emptying. Transplantation 1992; 54: 70-3.

142. Corley DA, Cello JP, Koch J. Evaluation of upper gastrointestinal tract symptoms in patients infected with HIV. Am J Gastroenterol 1999; 94: 2890-6.

143. Neild PJ, Nijran KS, Yazaki E, Evans DF, Wingate DL, Jewkes R, Gazzard BG. Delayed gastric emptying in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Dig Dis Sci 2000; 45: 1491-9.

144. Konturek JW, Fischer H, Van Der Voort IR, Domschke W. Disturbed motor activity in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Scand J Gastroenterol 1997; 32: 221-5.

145. Mearin F, de Ribot X, Balboa A, Salas A, Varas MJ, Cucala M, Bartolome R, Armengol JR, Malagelada JR. Does Helicobacter pylori infection increase gastric sensitivity in functional dyspepsia? Gut 1995; 37: 47-51.

146. Tucci A, Corinaldesi R, Stanghillini V, Tosetti C, DiFebo G, Paparo GF, Varoli O. Helicobacter pylori infection and gastric function in patients with chronic idiopathic dyspepsia. Gastroenterology 1992; 103: 768-74.

147. Parkman HP, Urbain J-LC, Knight LC, Brown KL, Trate DM, Miller MA, Maurer AH, Fisher RS. Effect of gastric acid suppressants on human gastric motility. Gut 1998; 42: 243-50.

148. Ueki S, Seiki M, Yoneta T, Aita H, Chaki K, Hori Y, Morita H, Tagashira E, Itoh Z. Gastroprokinetic activity of nizatidine, a new H2-receptor antagonist, and its possible mechanism of action in dogs and rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1993; 264: 152-7.

149. Masclee AAM, Gielkens AJ, Lam WF, de Boer SY, Lamers CB. Effects of parenteral nutrients on gastrointestinal motility and secretion. Scand J Gastroenterol 1996; 31(Suppl. 218): 50-5.

150. Casaubon PR, Dahlstrom KA, Vargas J, Hawkins R, Mogard M, Ament ME, Masci L. Intravenous fat emulsion (Intralipid) delays gastric emptying, but does not cause gastroesophageal reflux in healthy volunteers. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1989; 13: 246-8.

151. Wasdholtz BD, Anderson AE. Gastrointestinal symptoms in anorexia nervosa-a prospective study. Gastroenterology 1990; 98: 1415-19.

152. McCallum RW, Grill BB, Lange R, Planky M, Glass EE, Greenfield DG. Definition of a gastric emptying abnormality in patients with anorexia nervosa. Dig Dis Sci 1985; 30: 713-22.

153. Rigaud D, Bedig G, Merrouche M, Vulpillat M, Bonfils S, Apfel-baum M. Delayed gastric emptying in anorexia nervosa is improved by completion of a renutrition program. Dig Dis Sci 1988; 33: 919-25.

154. Szmukler GI, Young GP, Lichtensein M, Andrews JT. A serial study of gastric emptying in anorexia and bulimia. Aust N Z J Med 1990; 20: 220-5.

155. Mehler PS. Bulimia nervosa. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 875–81.

156. Chami TN, Andersen AE, Crowell M, Schuster MM, Whitehead WE. Gastrointestinal symptoms in bulimia nervosa: effects of treatment. Am J Gastroenterol 1995; 90: 88-92.

157. Kiss A, Bergmann H, Abatzi Th-A, Schneider C, Wiesnagrotzki S, Hobart J, Steiner-Mittelbach G, Gaupmann G, Kugi A, Stacher-Janotta G, Steinringer H, Stacher G. Oesophageal and gastric motor activity in patients with bulimia nervosa. Gut 1990; 31: 259-65.

158. Hutson WR, Wald A. Gastric emptying in patients with bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa. Am J Gastroenterol 1990; 85: 41-6.

159. Thumshirn M, Camilleri M, Hanson RB, Williams DE, Schei AJ, Kammer PP. Gastric mechanosensory and lower esophageal sphincter function in rumination syndrome. Am J Physiol 1998; 275: G314-G321.

160. Malcolm A, Thumshirn MB, Camilleri M, Williams DE. Rumination syndrome. Mayo Clin Proc 1997; 72: 646-52.

161. Pasricha PJ, Schuster MM, Saudek CD, Wand G, Ravich WJ. Cyclic vomiting: association with multiple homeostatic abnormalities and response to ketorolac. Am J Gastroenterol 1996; 91: 2228-32.

162. Prakash C, Clouse RE. Cyclic vomiting syndrome in adults: clinical features and response to tricyclic antidepressants. Am J Gastroenterol 1999; 94: 2855-60.

163. Abell TL, Kim CH, Malagelada J-R. Idiopathic cyclic nausea and vomiting-a disorder of gastrointestinal motility? Mayo Clin Proc 1988; 63: 1169-75.

164. Boles RG, Williams JC. Mitochondrial disease and cyclic vomiting syndrome. Dig Dis Sci 1999; 44: 103S-107S.

165. Talley NJ, Stanghellini V, Heading RC, Koch KL, Malagelada J-R, Tytgat GNJ. Functional gastroduodenal disorders. In: Drossman DA (ed.). Rome II: the functional disorders. Degnon Associates, McLean, VA, 2000.

166. Moore JG, Christian PE, Coleman RE. Gastric emptying of varying meal weight and composition in man. Dig Dis Sci 1981; 26: 16-22.

167. Bujanda L. The effects of alcohol consumption upon the gas-trointestinal tract. Am J Gastroenterol 2000; 95: 3374-82.

168. Miller G, Palmer KR, Smith B, Ferrington C, Merrick MV. Smoking delays gastric emptying of solids. Gut 1989; 30: 50-3.

169. Petiakis IE, Vrachassotakis N, Sciacca V, Vassilakis SI, Chalki-adakis G. Hyperglycemia attenuates erythromycin-induced acceleration of solid phase gastric emptying in idiopathic and diabetic gastroparesis. Scand J Gastroenterol 1999; 34: 396-403.

170. Muth ER, Jokerst M, Stern RM, Koch KL. Effects of dimenhydrinate on gastric tachyarrhythmia and symptoms of vection-in-duced motion sickness. Aviat Space Environ Med 1995; 66: 1041-5.

171. Talley NJ. Diabetic gastropathy and prokinetics. Am J Gastroenterol 2003; 98: 264-71.

172. Veldhuyzen van Zanten SJO, Cleary C, Talley NJ, Peterson TC, Nyren O, Bradley LA, Verlinden M, Tytgat GN. Drug treatment of functional dyspepsia: a systematic analysis of trial methodology with recommendations for design of future trials. Am J Gastroenterol 1996; 91: 660-73.

173. Dobrilla G, Comberlato M, Steele A, Vallaperta P. Drug treatment of functional dyspepsia-a metaanalysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. J Clin Gastroenterol 1989; 11: 169-77.

174. Finney JS, Kinnersley N, Hughes M, O’Bryan-Tear CG, Lothian V. Meta-analysis of antisecretory and gastrokinetic compounds in functional dyspepsia. J Clin Gastroenterol 1998; 26: 312-20.

175. Veldhuyzen van Zanen SJOV, Jones MJ, Verlinden M, Talley NJ. Efficacy of cisapride and domperidone in functional (non ulcer) dyspepsia: a meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96: 689-96.

176. Soo S, Deeks JJ, Delaney BC, Moayyedi P, Innes M, Forman D. A systematic review of pharmacological therapies in non-ulcer dyspepsia (abstr). Gastroenterology 2000; 118: A440.

177. Longstreth GF, Malagelada J-R, Kelly KA. Metoclopramide stimulation of gastric motility and emptying in diabetic gastroparesis. Ann Intern Med 1977; 86: 195-6.

178. Clarke DE, Craig DA, Fozard JR. The 5-HT4 receptor: naughty, but nice. TIPS 1989; 10: 385-90.

179. Brownlee M, Kroopf SS. Metoclopramide for gastroparesis dia-beticorum. N Engl J Med 1974; 291: 1257-8.

180. Longstreth GF, Malagelada J-R, Kelly KA. Metoclopramide stimulation of gastric motility and emptying in diabetic gastropare-sis. Ann Intern Med 1977; 186: 195-6.

181. Perkel MS, Moore C, Hersh T, Davidson ED. Metoclopramide therapy in patients with delayed gastric emptying. Dig Dis Sci 1979; 24: 662-6.

182. Snape WJ, Battle WM, Schwartz SS, Braunstein SN, Goldstein HA, Alavi A. Metoclopramide to treat gastroparesis due to diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 1982; 96: 444-6.

183. McCallum RW, Ricci DA, Rakatansky H, Behar J, Rhodes JB, Salen G, Daren J, Ippoliti A, Olsen HS, Falchuk K, Hersh T. A multicenter placebo-controlled clinical trial of oral metoclopramide in diabetic gastroparesis. Diabetes Care 1983; 6: 463-7.

184. Loo FD, Palmer DW, Soergel KH, Kalbfleisch JH, Wood CM. Gastric emptying in patients with diabetes mellitus. Gastroenterology 1984; 86: 485-94.

185. Ricci DA, Saltzman MB, Meyer C, Callachan C, McCallum RW. Effect of metoclopramide in diabetic gastroparesis. J Clin Gastroenterol 1985; 7: 25-32.

186. Erbas T, Varoglu E, Erbas B, Tastekin G, Akalin S. Comparison of metoclopramide and erythromycin in the treatment of diabetic gastroparesis. Diabetes Care 1993; 16: 1511-14.

187. Patterson D, Abell T, Rothstein R, Koch K, Barnett J. A double-blind multicenter comparison of domperidone and metoclopramide in the treatment of diabetic patients with symptoms of gastroparesis. Am J Gastroenterol 1999; 94: 1230-4.

188. Lata PF, Pigarelli DL. Chronic metoclopramide therapy for diabetic gastroparesis. Ann Pharmacother 2003; 37: 122-6.

189. Schade RR, Dugas MC, Lhotsky DM, Gavaler JS, van Thiel DH. Effect of metoclopramide on gastric liquid emptying in patients with diabetic gastroparesis. Dig Dis Sci 1985; 30: 10-15.

190. Trapnell BC, Mavko LE, Birskovich LM, Falko JM. Metoclopramide suppositories in the treatment of diabetic gastroparesis. Arch Intern Med 1986; 146: 2278-9.

191. Ganzini L, Casey DE, Hoffman WF, McCall AL. The prevalence of metoclopramide-induced tardive dyskinesia and acute extrapyramidal movement disorders. Arch Intern Med 1993; 153: 1469-75.

192. Miller LG, Jankovic J. Metoclopramide-induced movement disorders. Clinical findings with a review of the literature. Arch Intern Med 1989; 149: 2486-92.

193. Peeters TL. Erythromycin and other macrolides as prokinetic agents. Gastroenterology 1993; 105: 1886-99.

194. Feighner SD, Tan CP, McKee KK, Palyha OC, Hreniuk DL, Pong SS, Austin CP, Figueroa D, MacNeil D, Cascieri MA, Nargund R, Bakshi R, Abramovitz M, Stocco R, Kargman S, O’Neill G, Van Der Ploeg LH, Evans J, Patchett AA, Smith RG, Howard AD. Receptor for motilin identified in the human gastrointestinal system. Science 1999; 284: 2184-8.

195. Parkman HP, Pagano AP, Vozzelli M, Ryan JP. Gastrokinetic effects of erythromycin: myogenic and neurogenic mechanisms of action in the rabbit stomach. Am J Physiol 1995; 269: G418-G426.

196. Janssens J, Peeters TL, Vantrappen G, Tack J, Urbain JL, De Roo M, Muls E, Bouillon R. Improvement of gastric emptying in diabetic gastroparesis by erythromycin. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 1028-31.

197. Dull JS, Raufman J-P, Zakai MD, Strashun A, Straus EW. Successful treatment of gastroparesis with erythromycin in a patient with progressive systemic sclerosis. Am J Med 1990; 89: 528-30.

198. Mozwecz H, Pavel D, Pitrak D, Orellana P, Schlesinger PK, Layden TJ. Erythromycin stearate as prokinetic agent in postvagotomy gastroparesis. Dig Dis Sci 1990; 35: 902-5.

199. Klutman NE, Eisenach JB. Erythromycin therapy for gastroparesis. South Med J 1992; 85: 524-7.

200. Erbas T, Varoglu E, Erbas B, Tastakin G, Akalin S. Comparison of metoclopramide and erythromycin in the treatment of diabetic gastroparesis. Diabetes Care 1993; 16: 1511-14.

201. Richards RD, Davenport K, McCallum RW. The treatment of idiopathic and diabetic gastroparesis with acute intravenous and chronic oral erythromycin. Am J Gastroenterol 1993; 88: 203-7.

202. Ramirez B, Eaker EY, Drane WE, Hocking MP, Sninsky CA. Erythromycin enhances gastric emptying in patients with gastroparesis after vagotomy and antrectomy. Dig Dis Sci 1994; 39: 2295-300.

203. Samson M, Jebbink RJA, Akkermans LMA, Bravenboer B, van-Berge-Henegouwen GP, Smout AJPM. Effects of oral erythromy-cinon fasting and postprandial antroduodenal motility in patients with type 1 diabetes, measured with an ambulatory manometric technique. Diabetes Care 1997; 20: 129-34.

204. Talley NJ, Verlinden M, Geenen DJ, Hogan RB, Riff D, McCallum RW, Mack RJ. Effects of a motilin receptor agonist (ABT-229) on upper gastrointestinal symptoms in type 1 diabetes mellitus: a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trial. Gut 2001; 49: 395-401.

205. Camilleri M. The current role of erythromycin in the clinical management of gastric emptying disorders. Am J Gastroenterol 1993; 88: 169-71.

206. Maganti K, Onyemere K, Jones MP. Oral erythromycin and symptomatic relief of gastroparesis: a systematic review. Am J Gastroenterol 2003; 98: 259-63.

207. Ehrenpreis ED, Zaitman D, Nellans H. Which form of erythromycin should be used to treat gastroparesis? A pharmacologic analysis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1998; 12: 373-6.

208. DiBaise JK, Quigley EMM. Efficacy of prolonged administration of intravenous erythromycin in an ambulatory setting as treatment of severe gastroparesis. J Clin Gastroenterol 1999; 28: 131-4.

209. Talley NJ, Verlinden M, Snape W, Beker JA, Ducrotte P, Dettmer A, Brinkodd H, Eaker E, Ohning G, Miner PB, Mathias JR, Fumagalli I, Stassen J, Mack RJ. Failure of a motilin receptor agonist (ABT-229) to relieve the symptoms of functional dyspepsia in patients with and without delayed gastric emptying: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2000; 14: 1653-61.

210. Nagler J, Miskovitz P. Clinical evaluation of domperidone in the treatment of chronic postprandial idiopathic upper gastrointestinal distress. Am J Gastroenterol 1981; 76: 495-9.

211. Watts GF, Armitage M, Sinclair J, Hill JD. Treatment of diabetic gastroparesis with oral domperidone. Diabetic Med 1985; 2: 491-2.

212. Horowitz M, Harding PE, Chatterton BE, Collins PJ, Shearman DJC. Acute and chronic effects of domperidone on gastric emptying in diabetic autonomic neuropathy. Dig Dis Sci 1985; 30: 1-9.

213. Champion MC, Gulenchyn K, O’Leary T, Irvine P, Edwards A. Domperidone (motilium) improves symptoms and solid phase gastric emptying in diabetic gastroparesis. Am J Gastroenterol 1987; 82: 975-80.

214. Davis RH, Clench MH, Mathias JR. Effects of domperidone in patients with chronic unexplained upper gastrointestinal symptoms. Dig Dis Sci 1988; 33: 1505-11.

215. Soykan I, Sarosiek I, McCallum RW. The effect of chronic oral domperidone therapy on gastrointestinal symptoms, gastric emptying, and quality of life in patients with gastroparesis. Am J Gastroenterol 1997; 92: 976-80.

216. Silvers D, Kipnes M, Broadstone V, Patterson D, Quigley EMM, RcCallum R, Leidy NK, Farup C,Liu Y, Joslyn A. Domperidone in the management of symptoms of diabetic gastroparesis: efficacy, tolerability, and quality-of-live outcomes in a multicenter controlled trial. Clin Ther 1998; 20: 438-53.

217. Patterson D, Abell T, Rothstein R, Koch K, Barnett J. A double-blind multicenter comparison of domperidone and metoclopramide in the treatment of diabetic patients with symptoms of gastroparesis. Am J Gastroenterol 1999; 94: 1230-4.

218. Dumitrascu DL, Weinbeck M. Domperidone versus metoclopramide in the treatment of diabetic gastroparesis. Am J Gastroenterol 2000; 95: 316-17.

219. Jones MP. Access options for withdrawn motility-modifying agents. Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97: 2184-8.

220. Di Stefano M, Vos R, Janssens J, Tack JF. Effect of tegaserod, a 5-HT4 receptor partial agonist, on interdigestive and postprandial gastrointestinal motility in healthy volunteers (abstr). Gastroenterology 2003; 124: A163.

221. Degen L, Matzinger D, Merz M, Appel-Dingemanse S, Osborne S, Luchinger S, Bertold R, Maecke H, Beglinger C. Tegaserod, a 5-HT4 receptor partial agonist, accelerates gastric emptying and gastrointestinal transit in healthy male subjects. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2001; 15: 1745-51.

222. Prather CM, Camilleri M, Zinsmeister AR, McKinzie S, Thomforde G. Tegaserod accelerates orocecal transit in patients with constipation-predominant irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology 2000; 118: 463-8.

223. Tougas G, Chen Y, Luo D, Salter J, D’Elia T, Earnest DL. Tegaserod improves gastric emptying in patients with gastroparesis and dyspeptic symptoms (abstr). Gastroenterology 2003; 124: A54-468.

224. Tack J, Delia T, Ligozio G, Sue S, Lefkowitz M, Vandeplassche L. A phase II trial with tegaserod in functional dyspepsia patients with normal gastric emptying (abstr). Gastroenterology 2002; 120: A20-468.

225. Rabine JC, Barnett JL. Management of the patient with gastroparesis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2001; 32: 11-18.

226. Kishibayashi N, Karasawa A. Effects of KW-5092 on antroduodenal coordination and gastric emptying in guinea pigs. J Pharm Pharmacol 1998; 50: 1045-50.

227. Braida D, Virag W, Ottonello F, Sala M. Excitatory and inhibitory effects of second-generation cholinesterase inhibitors on rat gastrointestinal transit. Pharmacol Res 2000; 41: 671-7.

228. Tatsuta M, Iishi H, Nakaizumi A, Okuda S. Effect of treatment with cisapride alone or in combination with domperidone on gastric emptying and gastrointestinal symptoms in dyspeptic patients. Aliment Pharm Ther 1992; 6: 221-8.

229. Clouse RE. Antidepressants for functional gastrointestinal syndromes. Dig Dis Sci 1994; 39: 2352-63.

230. Prakash C, Lustman PJ, Freedland KE, Clouse RE. Tricyclic antidepressants for functional nausea and vomiting: clinical outcome in 37 patients. Dig Dis Sci 1998; 43: 1951-6.

231. Loldrup D, Langemark M, Hansen HJ, Olesen J, Beck P. Clomipramine and mianserin in chronic idiopathic pain syndrome: a placebo controlled study. Psychopharmacology 1989; 99: 1-7.

232. Mertz H, Fass R, Kodner A, Yan-Go F, Fullerton S, Mayer EA. Effect of amitriptyline on symptoms, sleep, and visceral perception in patients with functional dyspepsia. Am J Gastroenterol 1998; 93: 160-5.

233. Sawhney MS, Prakash C, Lustman PJ, Clouse RE. Tricyclic antidepressants for persistent or recurrent vomiting in diabetic patients (abstr). Gastroenterology 2001; 120: A243.

234. Abouezzi ZE, Melvin WS, Ellison EC, Schirmer WJ. Functional and symptomatic improvement in patients with diabetic gastroparesis following pyloroplasty (abstr). Gastroenterology 1998; 114: A1374.

235. Pasricha PJ, Ravich WJ, Hendrix TR, Sostre S, Jones B, Kallo AN. Intrasphincteric botulinum toxin for the treatment of achalasia. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 775-8.

236. Sharma VK, Glassman SB, Howden CW, Vasudeva R. Pyloric intrasphincteric botulinum toxin (Botox) improved symptoms and gastric emptying in a patient with diabetic gastroparesis (abstr). Am J Gastroenterol 1998; 93: 456.

237. Lacy BE, Schettler-Duncan VA, Crowell MD. The treatment of diabetic gastroparesis with botulinum toxin (abstr). Am J Gastroenterol 2000; 95: 2455-6.

238. Muddasani P, Ismail-Beigi F. Diabetic gastroparesis a possible new indication for botulinum toxin ingection (abstr). Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 97: S255.

239. Ezzeddine D, Jit R, Katz N, Gopalswamy N, Bhutani MS. Pyloric injection of botulinum toxin for treatment of diabetic gastroparesis. Gastrointest Endosc 2002; 55: 920-3.

240. Lacy BE, Zayat EN, Crowell MD, Schuster MM. Botulinum toxin for the treatment of gastroparesis: a preliminary report. Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97: 1548-52.

241. Miller LS, Szych GA, Kantor SB, Bromer MQ, Knight LC, Maurer AH, Fisher RS, Parkman HP. Treatment of idiopathic gastroparesis with injection of botulinum toxin into the pyloric sphincter muscle. Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97: 1653-60.

242. Arts J, Van Gool S, Caenepeel P, Janssens J, Tack. Effect of intrapyloric injection of botulinum toxin on gastric emptying and meal-related symptoms in gastroparesis (abstr). Gastroenterology 2003; 124: A53.

243. Familoni BO, Abell TL, Voeller G, Samem A, Gaber O. Electrical stimulation at a frequency higher than basal rate in human stomach. Dig Dis Sci 1997; 42: 885-91.

244. McCallum RW, Chen JDZ, Lin Z, Schirmer BD, Williams RD, Ross RA. Gastric pacing improves emptying and symptoms in patients with gastroparesis. Gastroenterology 1998; 114: 456-61.

245. Forster J, Sarosiek I, Delcore R, Lin Z, Raju GS, McCallum RW. Gastric pacing is a new surgical treatment for gastroparesis. Am J Surg 2001; 182: 676-81.

246. Sobrino MA, Patterson DJ, Thirlby RC. Health-related quality of life with gastric electrical stimulation for gastroparesis (abstr). Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97: S57.

247. Skole KS, Panganamamula KV, Bromer MQ, Thomas P, Meilahn JE, Fisher RS, Parkman HP. Efficacy of gastric electrical stimulation for gastroparesis refractory to medical therapy: a single center experience (abstr). Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97: S48.

248. Abell TL, Van Cutsem E, Abrahamsson H, Huizinga JD, Konturek JW, Galmiche JP, Voeller G, Filez L, Everts B, Waterfall WE, Domschke W, Bruley des Varannes S, Familoni BO, Bourgeois IM, Janssens J, Tougas G. Gastric electrical stimulation in intractable symptomatic gastroparesis. Digestion 2002; 66: 204-12.

249. Abell T, McCallum R, Hocking M, Koch K, Abrahamsson H, LeBlanc I, Lindberg G, Konturek J, Nowak T, Quigley EMM, Tougas G, Starkebaum W. Gastric electrical stimulation for medically refractory gastroparesis. Gastroenterology 2003; 125: 421-8.

250. Abell T, Lou J, Tabbaa M, Batista O, Malinowski S, Al-Juburi A. Gastric electric stimulation for gastroparesis improves nutritional parameters at short, intermediate, and long-term follow-up. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2003; 27: 277-81.

251. Jones MP, Ebert CC, Murayama K. Enterra for gastroparesis (letter). Am J Gastroenterol 2003; 98: 2578.

252. Mintchev MP, Sanmiguel CP, Amaris M, Bowes KL. Microprocessor-controlled movement of solid gastric content using sequential neural electrical stimulation. Gastroenterology 2000; 118: 258-63.

253. Jones MP, Maganti K. A systematic review of surgical therapy for gastroparesis. Am J Gastroenterol 2003; 98: 2122-9.

254. Kim CH, Nelson DK. Venting percutaneous gastrostomy in the treatment of refractory idiopathic gastroparesis. Gastrointest Endosc 1998; 47: 67-70.

255. Fontana RJ, Barnett JL. Jejunostomy tube placement in refractory diabetic gastroparesis: a retrospective review. Am J Gastroenterol 1996; 91: 2174-8.

256. Jacober SJ, Narayan A, Stroedel WE, Vinik AI. Jejunostomy feeding in the management of gastroparesis diabeticorum. Diabetes Care 1986; 9: 217-19.

257. Hotokezaka M, Adams RB, Miller AD, McCallum RW, Schirmer BD. Laparoscopic percutaneous jejunostomy for long term enteral access. Surg Endosc 1996; 10: 1008-11.

258. Watkins PJ, Buxton-Thomas MS, Howard ER. Long-term out-come after gastrectomy for intractable diabetic gastroparesis. Diabetic Med 2003; 20: 58-63.

259. Karlstrom L, Kelly KA. Roux-Y gastrectomy for chronic gastric atony. Am J Surg 1989; 157: 44-9.

260. McCallum RW, Polepalle SC, Schirmer B. Completion gastrectomy for refractory gastroparesis following surgery for peptic ulcer disease. Dig Dis Sci 1991; 36: 1556-61.

261. Eckhauser RE, Conrad M, Knol JA, Mulholland MW, Colletti LM. Safety and long-term durability of completion gastrectomy in 81 patients with postsurgical gastroparesis syndrome. Am Surg 1998; 64: 711-17.

262. Forstner-Barthell AW, Murr MM, Nitecki S, Camilleri M, Pranther CM, Kelly KA, Sarr MG. Near-total completion gastrectomy for severe postvagotomy gastric stasis. J Gastrointest Surg 1999; 3: 15-21.

263. Murat A, Pouliquen B, Cantarovich D, Lucas B, Bizais Y, Vecchierini MF, Charbonnel B, Galmiche JP, Soulillou JP. Gastric emptying improvement after simultaneous segmental pancreas and kidney transplantation. Transplant Proc 1992; 24: 855.

264. Kennedy WR, Navarro X, Goetz RC, Sutherland DER, Najarian JS. Effects of pancreatic transplantation on diabetic neuropathy. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 1031-7.

265. Hathaway DK, Abell T, Cardoso S, Hartwig MS, El Gebely S, Gaber AO. Improvement in autonomic and gastric function following pancreas-kidney versus kidney-alone transplantation and the correlation with quality of life. Transplantation 1994; 57: 816-22.

266. Mansi C, Borro P, Giacomini M, Biagini R, Mele MR, Pandolfo N, Savarino V. Comparative effects of levosulpiride and cisapride on gastric emptying and symptoms in patients with functional dyspepsia and gastroparesis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2000; 14: 561-9.

267. Schwizer W, Borovicka J, Kunz P, Fraser R, Kreiss C, D’Amato M, Crelier G, Boesiger P, Fried M. Role of cholecystokinin in the regulation of liquid gastric emptying and gastric motility in humans: studies with the CCK antagonist loxiglumide. Gut 1997; 41: 500-4.

268. Tack J, Coulie B, Andrioli A, Janssens J. Influence of sumatriptan on gastric fundus tone and of the perception of gastric distension in man. Gut 2000; 46: 468-73.

269. Thumshirn M, Camilleri M, Cho M-G, Zinsmeister AR. Modulation of gastric sensory and motor functions by nitrergic and alpha-2 adrenergic agents. Gastroenterology 1999; 116: 573-85.

270. Rosa-E-Silva L, Troncon LES, Oliveira RB, Iazigi N, Gallo L, Foss MC. Treatment of diabetic gastroparesis with oral clonidine. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1995; 9: 179-83.

271. Gullikson GW, Virina MA, Loeffler R, Erwin WD. Alpha-2-adrenergic model of gastroparesis. Am J Physiol 1991; 261: G426-G432.

272. Sarnelli G, Vos R, Sifrim D, Janssens J, Tack J. Influence of sildenafil on fasting and postprandial gastric tone in man (abstr). Gastroenterology 2001; 120: A285-A286.

273. de Rosalmeida MC, Saraiva LD, da Graca JR, Ivo BB, da Nobrega MV, Gondim FA, Rola FH, dos Santos AA. Sildenafil, a phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor, delays gastric emptying and gastrointestinal transit of liquid in awake rats. Dig Dis Sci 2003; 48: 2064-8.

274. Rothstein RD, Alavi A, Reynolds JC. Electrogastrography in patients with gastroparesis and effect of long-term cisapride. Dig Dis Sci 1993; 38: 1518-24.

275. Pimentel M, Sam C, Lin HC. Indomethacin improves symptoms and electrogastrographic findings in patients with gastric dysrhythmias. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2001; 13: 422.

276. Gonlachanvit S, Chen YH, Hasler WL, Sun WM, Owyang C. Ginger reduces hyperglycemia-evoked gastric dysrhythmias in healthy humans: possible role of endogenous prostaglandins. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2003; 307: 1098-103.

277. Calvert EL, Hughton LA, Cooper P, Whorwell PJ. Hypnotherapy is effective in the long-term treatment of functional dyspepsia (abstr). Gastroenterology 2001; 120: A115.

278. Hamilton J, Guthrie E, Creed F, Thompson D, Tomenson B, Bennett R, Muriarty K, Liston R. A randomized controlled trial of psychotherapy in patients with chronic functional dyspepsia. Gastroenterology 2000; 119: 661-9.

279. Rashed H, Cutts T, Abell T, Cowings P, Toscano W, El-Gammal A, Adl D. Predictors of response to a behavioral treatment in patients with chronic gastric motility disorders. Dig Dis Sci 2002; 47: 1020-6.

280. Dundee JW, Ghaly RG, Bill KM, Chestnutt WN, Fitzpatrick KTJ, Lynas AGA. Effect of stimulation of the P6 antiemetic point on postoperative nausea and vomiting. Br J Anaesth 1989; 63: 612-18.

281. Shen J, Wenger N, Glaspy J, Hays RD, Albert PS, Choi C, Shekelle PG. Electroacupuncture for control of myeloablative chemotherapy-induced emesis. JAMA 2000; 284: 2755-61.

282. De Aloysio D, Penacchioni P. Morning sickness control in early pregnancy by Neiguan point acupressure. Obstet Gynecol 1992; 80: 852-4.

283. Ouyang H, Yin J, Wang Z, Pasricha PJ, Chen JDZ. Electroacupuncture accelerates gastric emptying in association with changes in vagal activity. Am J Physiol 2002; 282: G390-G396.

284. Lin X, Liang J, Ren J, Mu F, Zhang M, Chen JD. Electrical stimulation of acupuncture points enhances gastric myoelectrical activity in humans. Am J Gastroenterol 1997; 92: 1527-30.

285. NIH Consensus Development Panel on Acupuncture. Acupuncture. JAMA 1998; 280: 1518-24.