medigraphic.com
Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía

2015, Número 1

<< Anterior Siguiente >>

Arch Neurocien 2015; 20 (1)


Los mecanismos fisiológicos, sus efectos a nivel cerebral, en las funciones cognitivas y en el rendimiento académico escolar

Cigarroa-Cuevas I, Zapata-Lamana R

Idioma: Español
Referencias bibliográficas: 127
Paginas: 40-53
Archivo PDF: 317.50 Kb.


RESUMEN

La evidencia actual indica que la práctica periódica de ejercicio físico tiene efectos beneficios que mejoran el rendimiento físico y cognitivo. Si bien faltan algunos mecanismos por entender, la neurogénesis hipocampal en conjunto a cambios funcionales y estructurales a nivel neuronal serían los responsables de los efectos del ejercicio físico en la cognición. En niños y adolescentes, dichos efectos cognitivos pueden conllevar a mejoras en el rendimiento escolar y en edades más avanzadas, prevenir o retrasar declives de la memoria. Objetivo: conocer los mecanismos que explican los efectos del ejercicio físico en las funciones cognitivas y su impacto en el rendimiento académico. Conclusión: existe evidencia que soporta la idea de que el ejercicio físico desencadena procesos que facilitan la neuroplasticidad, Además, genera efectos positivos no sólo en numerosas funciones cognitivas, sino que es capaz de mejorar el rendimiento académico.


REFERENCIAS (EN ESTE ARTÍCULO)

  1. World Health Organization. Global recommendations on physical activity for health. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization 2010;1-53.

  2. Hötting K, Röder B. Beneficial effects of physical exercise on neuroplasticity and cognition. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; of being physically active: physical activity and health. Ann Epidemiol 2009;19(4):253-6.

  3. 37(9 Pt B):2243-57.

  4. Chaddock L, Pontifex MB, Hillman CH, Kramer AF. A review of the relation of aerobic fitness and physical activity to brain structure and function in children. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2011 nov;17(6):975-85.

  5. Definition of spor t - Spor tAccord - International Sports Federations [Internet]. [cited 2014 Jun 4]. Available from:http://www.sportaccord.com/en/members/index.php?idIndex=32&idContent=14881

  6. Penedo FJ, Dahn JR. Exercise and well-being: a review of mental and physical health benefits associated with physical activity. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2005;18(2):189-93.

  7. Fox KR. The influence of physical activity on mental wellbeing. Public Health Nutr 1999 Sep;2(3A):411-8.

  8. Hillman CH, Castelli DM, Buck SM. Aerobic fitness and neurocognitive function in healthy preadolescent children. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005 Nov;37(11):1967-74.

  9. Hillman CH, Motl RW, Pontifex MB, Posthuma D, Stubbe JH, Boomsma DI, et al. Physical activity and cognitive function in a cross-section of younger and older community-dwelling individuals. Health Psychol 2006;25(6):678-87.

  10. Hillman CH, Erickson KI, Kramer AF. Be smart, exercise your hear t: exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nat Rev Neurosci 2008;9(1):58-65.

  11. Gligoroska JP, Manchevska S. The effect of physical activity on cognition - physiological mechanisms. Mater Sociomed 2012;24(3):198-202.

  12. Ploughman M. Exercise is brain food: the effects of physical activity on cognitive function. Dev Neurorehabil 2008; 11(3):236-40.

  13. Cotman CW, Berchtold NC. Physical activity and the maintenance of cognition: learning from animal models. Alzheimers. Dement 2007;3(2 Suppl):S30-7.

  14. Swain RA, Harris AB, Wiener EC, Dutka M V, Morris HD, Theien BE, et al. Prolonged exercise induces angiogenesis and increases cerebral blood volume in primary motor cortex of the rat. Neuroscience 2003;117(4):1037-46.

  15. Kleim JA, Cooper NR, VandenBerg PM. Exercise induces angiogenesis but does not alter movement representations within rat motor cortex. Brain Res 2002;26;934(1):1-6.

  16. McMorris T, Collard K, Corbett J, Dicks M, Swain JP. A test of the catecholamines hypothesis for an acute exercisecognition interaction. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2008; 89(1):106-15.

  17. Winter B, Breitenstein C, Mooren FC, Voelker K, Fobker M, Lechtermann A, et al. High impact running improves learning. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2007;87(4):597-609.

  18. Brudzynski SM, Gibson CJ. Release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens caused by stimulation of the subiculum in freely moving rats. Brain Res Bull 1997;42(4):303-8.

  19. Schinder AF, Poo M. The neurotrophin hypothesis for synaptic plasticity. Trends Neurosci 2000;23(12):639-45.

  20. Van Praag H, Kempermann G, Gage FH. Running increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus. Nat Neurosci 1999;2(3):266-70.

  21. Van Praag H. Neurogenesis and exercise: past and future directions. Neuromolecular Med 2008 Jan;10(2):128-40.

  22. Bavelier D, Neville HJ. Cross-modal plasticity: where and how? Nat Rev Neurosci 2002;3(6):443-52.

  23. Doussoulin-sanhueza MA. Como se fundamenta la neurrorehabilitación desde el punto de vista de la neuroplasticidad. Arch Neurocienc 2011;16(4):216-22.

  24. Bao JX, Kandel ER, Hawkins RD. Involvement of presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms in a cellular analog of classical conditioning at Aplysia sensory-motor neuron synapses in isolated cell culture. J Neurosci 1998;18(1):458-66.

  25. Recanzone GH, Merzenich MM, Jenkins WM, Grajski KA, Dinse HR. Topographic reorganization of the hand representation in cor tical area 3b owl monkeys trained in a frequencydiscrimination task. J Neurophysiol 1992;67(5):1031-56.

  26. Van Praag H. Exercise and the brain: something to chew on. Trends Neurosci 2009;32(5):283-90.

  27. Singh A, Uijtdewilligen L, Twisk JWR, van Mechelen W, Chinapaw MJM. Physical activity and performance at school: a systematic review of the literature including a methodological quality assessment. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2012;166(1):49-55.

  28. Cotman CW, Berchtold NC, Christie L-A. Exercise builds brain health: key roles of growth factor cascades and inflammation. Trends Neurosci 2007;30(9):464-72.

  29. Kramer AF, Hahn S, Cohen NJ, Banich MT, McAuley E, Harrison CR, et al. Ageing, fitness and neurocognitive function. Nature 1999;400(6743):418-9.

  30. Van Boxtel MP, Paas FG, Houx PJ, Adam JJ, Teeken JC, Jolles J. Aerobic capacity and cognitive performance in a crosssectional aging study. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29(10):1357-65.

  31. Guo M, Lin V, Davis W, Huang T, Carranza A, Sprague S, et al. Preischemic induction of TNF-alpha by physical exercise reduces blood-brain barrier dysfunction in stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2008;28(8):1422-30.

  32. Griesbach GS, Hovda DA, Molteni R, Wu A, Gomez-Pinilla F. Voluntary exercise following traumatic brain injur y: brainderived neurotrophic factor upregulation and recovery of function. Neuroscience 2004;125(1):129-39.

  33. Griesbach GS, Hovda DA, Gomez-Pinilla F, Sutton RL. Voluntary exercise or amphetamine treatment, but not the combination, increases hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor and synapsin I following cor tical contusion injur y in rats. Neuroscience 2008;154(2):530-40.

  34. Griesbach GS, Hovda DA, Gomez-Pinilla F. Exercise-induced improvement in cognitive performance after traumatic brain injury in rats is dependent on BDNF activation. Brain Res 2009;1288:105-15.

  35. Khan NA, Hillman C. The Relation of Childhood Physical Activity and Aerobic Fitness to Brain Function and Cognition: a review. Pediatr Exerc Sci 2014.

  36. Juster FT, Ono H, Stafford FP. Changing times of american youth: 1981-2003. Michigan; 2004;1-15.

  37. Gómez-Pinilla F. Brain foods: the effects of nutrients on brain function. Nat Rev Neurosci 2008;9(7):568-78.

  38. Kramer AF, Willis SL. Enhancing the Cognitive Vitality of Older Adults. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 2002;11(5):173-7.

  39. Nyberg L. Cognitive training in healthy aging:cognitive neurociencie perspective. In: Oxford University Press, editor. Cogn. Neurosci. aging Link. Cogn. Cereb. aging. Cabeza, Ro. New York; 2005;309-21.

  40. Van Praag H, Kempermann G, Gage FH. Neural consequences of environmental enrichment. Nat Rev Neurosci 2000; 1(3):191-8.

  41. Shakeshaft NG, Trzaskowski M, McMillan A, Rimfeld K, Krapohl E, Haworth CMA, et al. Strong genetic influence on a UK nationwide test of educational achievement at the end of compulsory education at age 16. PLoS One 2013; 8(12): e80341.

  42. Blair SN, Morris JN. Healthy hearts and the universal benefits

  43. Crimi E, Ignarro LJ, Cacciatore F, Napoli C. Mechanisms by which exercise training benefits patients with heart failure. Nat Rev Cardiol 2009;6(4):292-300.

  44. Haskell WL, Lee I-M, Pate RR, Powell KE, Blair SN, Franklin BA, et al. Physical activity and public health: updated recommendation for adults from the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart Association. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007;39(8):1423-34.

  45. Zhang GQ, Zhang W. Heart rate, lifespan, and mortality risk. Ageing Res Rev 2009;8(1):52-60.

  46. Voss MW, Vivar C, Kramer AF, van Praag H. Bridging animal and human models of exercise-induced brain plasticity. Trends Cogn Sci 2013;17(10):525-44.

  47. Bayod S, Del Valle J, Canudas AM, Lalanza JF, Sanchez-Roige S, Camins A, et al. Long-term treadmill exercise induces neuroprotective molecular changes in rat brain. J Appl Physiol 2011;111(5):1380-90.

  48. Deslandes A, Moraes H, Ferreira C, Veiga H, Silveira H, Mouta R, et al. Exercise and mental health: many reasons to move. Neuropsychobiology 2009;59(4):191-8.

  49. Kramer AF, Erickson KI. Capitalizing on cortical plasticity: influence of physical activity on cognition and brain function. Trends Cogn Sci 2007;11(8):342-8.

  50. Abbott RD, White LR, Ross GW, Masaki KH, Curb JD, Petrovitch H. Walking and dementia in physically capable elderly men. JAMA 2004 Sep 22;292(12):1447-3.

  51. Weuve J, Kang JH, Manson JE, Breteler MMB, Ware JH, Grodstein F. Physical activity, including walking, and cognitive function in older women. JAMA 2004;292(12):1454-61.

  52. Llorens-Mar tín M, Torres-Alemán I, Trejo JL. Exercise modulates insulin-like growth factor 1-dependent and - independent effects on adult hippocampal neurogenesis and behaviour. Mol Cell Neurosci 2010;44(2):109-17.

  53. Kempermann G, Fabel K, Ehninger D, Babu H, Leal-Galicia P, Garthe A, et al. Why and how physical activity promotes experience-induced brain plasticity. Front Neurosci 2010; 4:189.

  54. Floresco SB, Todd CL, Grace AA. Glutamatergic afferents from the hippocampus to the nucleus accumbens regulate activity of ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons. J Neurosci 2001; 21(13):4915-22.

  55. Hillman CH, Snook EM, Jerome GJ. Acute cardiovascular exercise and executive control function. Int J Psychophysiol 2003;48(3):307-14.

  56. Kubitz KA, Mott AA. EEG power spectral densities during and after cycle ergometer exercise. Res Q Exerc Sport 1996; 67(1):91-6.

  57. O’Callaghan RM, Griffin EW, Kelly AM. Long-term treadmill exposure protects against age-related neurodegenerative change in the rat hippocampus. Hippocampus 2009; 19(10):1019-29.

  58. Huang AM, Jen CJ, Chen HF, Yu L, Kuo YM, Chen HI. Compulsive exercise acutely upregulates rat hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor. J Neural Transm 2006;113(7):803-11.

  59. Chen HI, Lin LC, Yu L, Liu YF, Kuo YM, Huang AM. Treadmill exercise enhances passive avoidance learning in rats: the role of down-regulated serotonin system in the limbic system. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2008;89(4):489-96.

  60. Liu YF, Chen H, Wu CL, Kuo YM, Yu L, Huang AM, et al. Differential effects of treadmill running and wheel running on spatial or aversive learning and memory: roles of amygdalar brain-derived neurotrophic factor and synaptotagmin I. J Physiol 2009;587(Pt 13):3221-31.

  61. Hansalik M, Skalicky M, Viidik A. Impairment of water maze behaviour with ageing is counteracted by maze learning earlier in life but not by physical exercise, food restriction or housing conditions. Exp Gerontol 2006;41(2):169-74.

  62. Sherwin C. Voluntary wheel running: a review and novel interpretation. Anim Behav 1998;56(1):11-27.

  63. Leasure JL, Jones M. Forced and voluntar y exercise differentially affect brain and behavior. Neuroscience 2008; 15;156(3):456-65.

  64. Ang ET, Gomez-Pinilla F. Potential therapeutic effects of exercise to the brain. Curr Med Chem 2007;14(24):2564-71.

  65. Haskell-Luevano C, Schaub JW, Andreasen A, Haskell KR, Moore MC, Koerper LM, et al. Voluntary exercise prevents the obese and diabetic metabolic syndrome of the melanocortin-4 receptor knockout mouse. FASEB J 2009; 23(2):642-55.

  66. Patterson CM, Levin BE. Role of exercise in the central regulation of energy homeostasis and in the prevention of obesity. Neuroendocrinology 2008;87(2):65-70.

  67. Novak CM, Burghardt PR, Levine JA. The use of a running wheel to measure activity in rodents: relationship to energy balance, general activity, and reward. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2012;36(3):1001-14.

  68. García-Capdevila S, Portell-Cortés I, Torras-Garcia M, Coll- Andreu M, Costa-Miserachs D. Effects of long-term voluntary exercise on learning and memory processes: dependency of the task and level of exercise. Behav Brain Res 2009; 202(2):162-70.

  69. Lalanza JF, Sanchez-Roige S, Gagliano H, Fuentes S, Bayod S, Camins A, et al. Physiological and behavioural consequences of long-term moderate treadmill exercise. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2012;37(11):1745-54.

  70. Dishman RK, Renner KJ, White-Welkley JE, Burke KA, Bunnell BN. Treadmill exercise training augments brain norepinephrine response to familiar and novel stress. Brain Res Bull 2000; 52(5):337-42.

  71. Burghardt PR, Fulk LJ, Hand GA, Wilson MA. The effects of chronic treadmill and wheel running on behavior in rats. Brain Res 2004;1019(1-2):84-96.

  72. Lin TW, Chen SJ, Huang TY, Chang CY, Chuang JI, Wu FS, et al. Different types of exercise induce differential effects on neuronal adaptations and memory performance. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2012;97(1):140-7.

  73. Ruscheweyh R, Willemer C, Krüger K, Duning T, Warnecke T, Sommer J, et al. Physical activity and memory functions: an interventional study. Neurobiol Aging 2011;32(7):1304-19.

  74. Colcombe SJ, Kramer AF, Erickson KI, Scalf P, McAuley E, Cohen NJ, et al. Cardiovascular fitness, cortical plasticity, and aging. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004;101(9):3316-21.

  75. Erickson KI, Voss MW, Prakash RS, Basak C, Szabo A, Chaddock L, et al. Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2011;108(7):3017-22.

  76. Fredericks CR, Kokot SJ, Krog S. Using a developmental movement programme to enhance academic skills in grade 1 learners. South African J Res Sport Phys Educ Recreat Stellenbosch University 2006;28(1):29-42.

  77. Carlson SA, Fulton JE, Lee SM, Maynard LM, Brown DR, Kohl HW, et al. Physical education and academic achievement in elementary school: data from the early childhood longitudinal study. Am J Public Health 2008;98(4):721-7. 52 | Vol. 20 | No. 1 enero-marzo 2015 | Arch Neurocien (Mex) INNN, 2015 Los mecanismos fisiológicos, sus efectos a nivel cerebral

  78. Voelcker-Rehage C, Godde B, Staudinger UM. Cardiovascular and coordination training differentially improve cognitive performance and neural processing in older adults. Front Hum Neurosci 2011;5:26.

  79. Hawkins HL, Kramer AF, Capaldi D. Aging, exercise, and attention. Psychol Aging 1992;7(4):643-53.

  80. Stroth S, Hille K, Spitzer M, Reinhardt R. Aerobic endurance exercise benefits memor y and af fect in young adults. Neuropsychol Rehabil 2009;19(2):223-43.

  81. Sibley B, Etnie J. The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: a Meta-Analysis. Pediatr Exerc Sci 2003;15:243-56.

  82. Panton LB, Graves JE, Pollock ML, Hagberg JM, Chen W. Effect of aerobic and resistance training on fractionated reaction time and speed of movement. J Gerontol 1990;45(1):M26-31.

  83. Madden DJ, Blumenthal JA, Allen PA, Emery CF. Improving aerobic capacity in healthy older adults does not necessarily lead to improved cognitive performance. Psychol Aging 1989 Sep;4(3):307-20.

  84. Colcombe S, Kramer AF. Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: a meta-analytic study. Psychol Sci 2003;14(2):125-30.

  85. Hötting K, Reich B, Holzschneider K, Kauschke K, Schmidt T, Reer R, et al. Differential cognitive effects of cycling versus stretching/coordination training in middle-aged adults. Health Psychol 2012;31(2):145-55.

  86. Thomas AG, Dennis A, Bandettini PA, Johansen-Berg H. The effects of aerobic activity on brain structure. Front Psychol 2012 Jan;3:86.

  87. Liu-Ambrose T, Nagamatsu LS, Graf P, Beattie BL, Ashe MC, Handy TC. Resistance training and executive functions: a 12- month randomized controlled trial. Arch Intern Med 2010 Jan 25;170(2):170-8.

  88. Cassilhas RC, Lee KS, Fernandes J, Oliveira MGM, Tufik S, Meeusen R, et al. Spatial memory is improved by aerobic and resistance exercise through divergent molecular mechanisms.

  89. Trudeau F, Shephard RJ. Physical education, school physical activity, school sports and academic performance. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2008;5:10.

  90. Castelli DM, Hillman CH, Buck SM, Erwin HE. Physical fitness and academic achievement in third- and fifth-grade students. J Sport Exerc Psychol 2007;29(2):239-52.

  91. Ahamed Y, Macdonald H, Reed K, Naylor P-J, Liu-Ambrose T, McKay H. School-based physical activity does not compromise children’s academic performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2007; 39(2):371-6.

  92. Taras H. Physical activity and student performance at school. J Sch Health 2005;75(6):214-8.

  93. Nelson MC, Gordon-Larsen P. Physical activity and sedentary behavior patterns are associated with selected adolescent health risk behaviors. Pediatrics 2006;117(4):1281-90.

  94. Coe DP, Pivarnik JM, Womack CJ, Reeves MJ, Malina RM. Effect of physical education and activity levels on academic achievement in children. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006; 38(8):1515-9.

  95. Miller KE, Melnick MJ, Barnes GM, Farrell MP, Sabo D. Untangling the links among athletic involvement, Gender, Race, and Adolescent Academic Outcomes. Sociol Sport J 2005;22(2):178-93.

  96. Chomitz VR, Slining MM, McGowan RJ, Mitchell SE, Dawson GF, Hacker KA. Is there a relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement? Positive results from public school children in the northeastern United

  97. Roberts CK, Freed B, McCarthy WJ. Low aerobic fitness and obesity are associated with lower standardized test scores in children. J Pediatr 2010;156(5):711-8, 718.e1.

  98. Donnelly JE, Greene JL, Gibson CA, Smith BK, Washburn RA, Sullivan DK, et al. Physical activity across the curriculum (PAAC): a randomized controlled trial to promote physical activity and diminish overweight and obesity in elementary school children. Prev Med (Baltim) 2009;49(4):336-41.

  99. Rauner RR, Walters RW, Avery M. Evidence that aerobic fitness is more salient than weight status in predicting standardized math and reading outcomes in fourth- through eighth-grade students. J Pediatr 2013;163(2):344-8.

  100. Raine LB, Lee HK, Saliba BJ, Chaddock-Heyman L, Hillman CH, Kramer AF. The influence of childhood aerobic fitness on learning and memory. PLoS One 2013;8(9):e72666.

  101. Colcombe SJ, Erickson KI, Scalf PE, Kim JS, Prakash R, McAuley E, et al. Aerobic exercise training increases brain volume in aging humans. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2006; 61(11):1166-70.

  102. Holzschneider K, Wolbers T, Röder B, Hötting K. Cardiovascular fitness modulates brain activation associated with spatial learning. Neuroimage 2012;59(3):3003-14.

  103. Kee N, Teixeira CM, Wang AH, Frankland PW. Imaging activation of adult-generated granule cells in spatial memory. Nat Protoc 2007;2(12):3033-44.

  104. Uysal N, Tugyan K, Kayatekin BM, Acikgoz O, et al. The effects of regular aerobic exercise in adolescent period on hippocampal neuron density, apoptosis and spatial memory. Neurosci Lett 2005;383(3):241-5.

  105. Kronenberg G, Bick-Sander A, Bunk E, Wolf C, Ehninger D, Kempermann G. Physical exercise prevents age-related decline in precursor cell activity in the mouse dentate gyrus. Neurobiol Aging 2006;27(10):1505-13.

  106. Wu CW, Chang YT, Yu L, Chen H, Jen CJ, Wu SY, et al. Exercise enhances the proliferation of neural stem cells and neurite growth and survival of neuronal progenitor cells in dentate gyrus of middle-aged mice. J Appl Physiol 2008;105(5): 1585-94.

  107. Van Praag H, Shubert T, Zhao C, Gage FH. Exercise enhances learning and hippocampal neurogenesis in aged mice. J Neurosci 2005;25(38):8680-5.

  108. Stranahan AM, Khalil D, Gould E. Running induces widespread structural alterations in the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex. Hippocampus 2007;17(11):1017-22.

  109. Black JE, Isaacs KR, Anderson BJ, Alcantara AA, Greenough WT. Learning causes synaptogenesis, whereas motor activity causes angiogenesis, in cerebellar cortex of adult rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990;87(14):5568-72.

  110. Rhyu IJ, Bytheway JA, Kohler SJ, Lange H, Lee KJ, Boklewski J, et al. Effects of aerobic exercise training on cognitive function and cortical vascularity in monkeys. Neuroscience 2010 Jun 2;167(4):1239-48.

  111. Lafenêtre P, Leske O, Ma-Högemeie Z, Haghikia A, Bichler Z, Wahle P, et al. Exercise can rescue recognition memory impairment in a model with reduced adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Front Behav Neurosci 2010;3:34.

  112. Trejo JL, Carro E, Torres-Aleman I. Circulating insulin-like growth factor I mediates exercise-induced increases in the number of new neurons in the adult hippocampus. J Neurosci 2001;21(5):1628-34.

  113. Lista I, Sorrentino G. Biological mechanisms of physical activity in preventing cognitive decline. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2010;30(4):493-503.

  114. Farmer J, Zhao X, van Praag H, Wodtke K, Gage FH, Christie BR. Effects of voluntary exercise on synaptic plasticity and gene expression in the dentate gyrus of adult male Sprague- Dawley rats in vivo. Neuroscience 2004;124(1):71-9.

  115. O’Callaghan RM, Ohle R, Kelly AM. The effects of forced exercise on hippocampal plasticity in the rat: a comparison of LTP, spatial- and non-spatial learning. Behav Brain Res 2007; 176(2):362-6.

  116. Cooke SF, Bliss TVP. Plasticity in the human central nervous system. Brain 2006;129(Pt 7):1659-73.

  117. Carro E, Nuñez A, Busiguina S, Torres-Aleman I. Circulating insulin-like growth factor I mediates effects of exercise on the brain. J Neurosci 2000;20(8):2926-33.

  118. Pereira AC, Huddleston DE, Brickman AM, Sosunov AA, Hen R, McKhann GM, et al. An in vivo correlate of exercise-induced neurogenesis in the adult dentate gyrus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007;104(13):5638-43.

  119. Molteni R, Ying Z, Gómez-Pinilla F. Differential effects of acute and chronic exercise on plasticity-related genes in the rat hippocampus revealed by microarray. Eur J Neurosci 2002; 16(6):1107-16.

  120. Chaouloff F. Physical exercise and brain monoamines: a review. Acta Physiol Scand 1989;137(1):1-13.

  121. Seifert T, Brassard P, Wissenberg M, Rasmussen P, et al. Endurance training enhances BDNF release from the human brain. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2010;298(2): R372-7.

  122. Rojas Vega S, Knicker A, Hollmann W, Bloch W, Strüder HK. Effect of resistance exercise on serum levels of growth factors in humans. Horm Metab Res 2010;42(13):982-6.

  123. Erickson KI, Colcombe SJ, Elavsky S, McAuley E, Korol DL, Scalf PE, et al. Interactive effects of fitness and hormone treatment on brain health in postmenopausal women. Neurobiol Aging 2007;28(2):179-85.

  124. Litt MD, Kleppinger A, Judge JO. Initiation and maintenance of exercise behavior in older women: predictors from the social learning model. J Behav Med 2002;25(1):83-97.

  125. McAuley E, Jerome GJ, Elavsky S, Marquez DX, Ramsey SN. Predicting long-term maintenance of physical activity in older adults. Prev Med (Baltim) 2003;37(2):110-8.

  126. Olshansky SJ. Projecting the future of U.S. health and longevity. Health Aff (Millwood) 2005;24 Suppl 2:W5R86-9.

  127. Olshansky SJ, Passaro DJ, Hershow RC, Layden J, Carnes BA, Brody J, et al. A potential decline in life expectancy in the United States in the 21st century. N Engl J Med 2005 Mar 17;352(11):1138-45.




2020     |     www.medigraphic.com