medigraphic.com
Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán

2008, Número 2

<< Anterior Siguiente >>

Rev Invest Clin 2008; 60 (2)


Consumo de bebidas para una vida saludable: recomendaciones para la población mexicana

Rivera JA, Muñoz-Hernández O, Rosas-Peralta M, Aguilar-Salinas CA, Popkin BM, Willett WC

Idioma: Español
Referencias bibliográficas: 162
Paginas: 157-180
Archivo PDF: 221.95 Kb.


RESUMEN

El Secretario de Salud convocó al Comité de Expertos para la elaboración de las “Recomendaciones sobre el consumo de bebidas para la población mexicana”; la finalidad fue desarrollar lineamientos basados en evidencia científica para los consumidores, los profesionales de la salud y el sector gubernamental. Las prevalencias de sobrepeso, obesidad y diabetes han aumentado con rapidez en México y las bebidas representan la quinta parte de la energía que consumen los mexicanos. La evidencia señala que las bebidas con aporte energético incrementan el riesgo de obesidad. Considerando los beneficios y riesgos para la salud y nutrición, así como el patrón de consumo de las bebidas en México, el Comité clasificó las bebidas en seis categorías de acuerdo con su contenido energético, valor nutricio y riesgos a la salud en una escala que clasifica las bebidas de la más (nivel 1) a la menos (nivel 6) saludable. Nivel 1: agua potable; nivel 2: leche baja en grasa (1%) y sin grasa y bebidas de soya sin azúcar; nivel 3: café y té sin azúcar; nivel 4: bebidas no calóricas con edulcorantes artificiales; nivel 5: bebidas con alto valor calórico y beneficios a la salud limitados (jugos de fruta, leche entera, licuados de fruta con azúcar o miel, bebidas alcohólicas y bebidas deportivas); y nivel 6: bebidas con azúcar y bajo contenido de nutrimentos (refrescos y ingesotras bebidas con altas cantidades de azúcares agregadas como jugos, aguas frescas, café y té). El Comité recomienda el consumo de agua en primer lugar, seguido de bebidas sin o con bajo aporte energético y leche descremada. Éstas deben tener prioridad sobre las de mayor aporte energético o endulzadas, incluso con edulcorantes artificiales. Se presentan cantidades recomendadas para cada categoría de bebidas y se ilustran patrones de consumo saludable para adultos de ambos sexos.


REFERENCIAS (EN ESTE ARTÍCULO)

  1. Popkin BM, Armstrong LE, Bray GM, Caballero B, Frei B, Willett WC. A new proposed guidance system for beverage consumption in the United States. Am J Clin Nutr 2006; 83: 529-42.

  2. Ludwig DS, Peterson KE. Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: a prospective, observational analysis. Lancet 2001; 357(9255): 505-8.

  3. Raben A, Vasilaras TH. Sucrose compared with artificial sweeteners: different effects on ad libitum food intake and body weight after 10 wk of supplementation in overweight subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 2002; 76(4): 721-9.

  4. Schulze MB, Manson JE. Sugar-sweetened beverages, weight gain, and incidence of type 2 diabetes in young and middleaged women. JAMA 2004; 292(8): 927-34.

  5. Malik VS, Schulze MB. Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: A systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr 2006; 84(2): 274-88.

  6. Vartanian LR, Schwartz MB. Effects of soft drink consumption on nutrition and health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Public Health 2007; 97(4): 667-75.

  7. Barquera S, Tovar-Guzman V. Geography of diabetes mellitus mortality in Mexico: an epidemiologic transition analysis. Arch Med Res 2003; 34(5): 407-14.

  8. Durazo-Arvizu R, Barquera S. Cardiovascular diseases mortality in Cuba, Mexico, Puerto Rico and US hispanic populations. Prevention and Control 2006; 2(2): 63-71.

  9. Rivera J, Shamah T, Villalpando S, Ávila MA, Jiménez A. Estado Nutricio. En: Olaiz RJ, Shama T, Rojas R, Villalpando S, Hernández M, Sepúlveda J (eds.). Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición (2006) Cuernavaca, México: Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública; 2006, p. 85-106.

  10. Hulshof T, De Graaf C. The effects of preloads varying in physical state and fat content on satiety and energy intake. Appetite 1993; 21(3): 273-86.

  11. Raben A, Tagliabue A. Resistant starch: the effect on postprandial glycemia, hormonal response, and satiety. Am J Clin Nutr 1994; 60(4): 544-51.

  12. Mattes RD. Dietary compensation by humans for supplemental energy provided as ethanol or carbohydrate in fluids. Physiol Behav 1996; 59(1): 179-87.

  13. Haber G, Heaton K. Depletion and disruption of dietary fiber. Lancet 1997; 2: 679-82.

  14. DiMeglio DP, Mattes RD. Liquid versus solid carbohydrate: affects on food intake and body weight. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000; 24(6): 794-800.

  15. Mattes RD. Fluid energy-Where’s the problem? J Am Diet Assoc 2006; 106(12): 1956-61.

  16. Mourao DM, Bressan J. Effects of food form on appetite and energy intake in lean and obese young adults. Int J Obes (Lond) 2007.

  17. Panel on dietary reference intakes for electrolytes and water, S. C. o. t. S. E. o. D. R. I., food and nutrition board, Institute of Medicine. 2004 Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington DC: National Academy Press, 2004.

  18. Seagle H, Davy B. Energy density of self-reported food intake: variation and relationship to other food components. Obesity Research 1997; 5: 78S.

  19. Marti-Henneberg C, Capdevila F. Energy density of the diet, food volume and energy intake by age and sex in a healthy population. Eur J Clin Nutr 1999; 53(6): 421-8.

  20. Cox DN, Mela DJ. Determination of energy density of freely selected diets: methodological issues and implications. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000; 24(1): 49-54.

  21. Gibson SA. Associations between energy density and macronutrient composition in the diets of pre-school children: sugars vs. starch. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000; 24(5): 633-8.

  22. Grunwald GK, Seagle HM. Quantifying and separating the effects of macronutrient composition and non-macronutrients on energy density. Br J Nutr 2001; 86(2): 265-76.

  23. Ledikwe JH, Blanck HM. Dietary energy density determined by eight calculation methods in a nationally representative United States population. J Nutr 2005; 135(2): 273-8.

  24. Rolls BJ, Bell EA. Water incorporated into a food but not served with a food decreases energy intake in lean women. Am J Clin Nutr 1999; 70(4): 448-55.

  25. Rolls BJ, Drewnowski A. Changing the energy density of the diet as a strategy for weight management. J Am Diet Assoc 2005; 105(5 Suppl. 1): S98-S103.

  26. Rolls BJ, Fedoroff IC. Foods with different satiating effects in humans. Appetite 1990; 15(2): 115-26.

  27. Armstrong LE. Hydration assessment techniques. Nutr Rev 2005; 63(6 Pt 2): S40-S54.

  28. Manz F, Wentz A. The importance of good hydration for the prevention of chronic diseases. Nutr Rev 2005; 63(6 Pt 2): S2-S5.

  29. Sawka MN, Cheuvront SN. Human water needs. Nutr Rev 2005; 63(6 Pt 2): S30-S39.

  30. Cian C, Barraud PA. Effects of fluid ingestion on cognitive function after heat stress or exercise-induced dehydration. Int J Psychophysiol 2001; 42(3): 243-51.

  31. Ritz P, Berrut G. The importance of good hydration for day-today health. Nutr Rev 2005; 63(6 Pt 2): S6-S13.

  32. Cheuvront SN, Carter R. Fluid balance and endurance exercise performance. Curr Sports Med Rep 2003; 2(4): 202-8.

  33. Maughan RJ. Impact of mild dehydration on wellness and on exercise performance. Eur J Clin Nutr 2003; 57(Suppl. 2): S19-S23.

  34. Shirreffs SM, Merson SJ. The effects of fluid restriction on hydration status and subjective feelings in man. Br J Nutr 2004; 91(6): 951-8.

  35. Suhr JA, Hall J. The relation of hydration status to cognitive performance in healthy older adults. Int J Psychophysiol 2004; 53(2): 121-5.

  36. Borghi L, Meschi T. Urinary volume, water and recurrences in idiopathic calcium nephrolithiasis: a 5-year randomized prospective study. J Urol 1996; 155(3): 839-43.

  37. Siener R, Hesse A. Fluid intake and epidemiology of urolithiasis. Eur J Clin Nutr 2003; 57(Suppl. 2): S47-S51.

  38. Heaney RP, Skillman TG. Calcium metabolism in normal human pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1971; 33(4): 661-70.

  39. Barr SI. Increased dairy product or calcium intake: Is body weight or composition affected in humans? J Nutr 2003; 133(1): 245S-248S.

  40. Teegarden D, Zemel MB. Dairy product components and weight regulation: symposium overview. J Nutr 2003; 133(1): 243S-244S.

  41. Gunther CW, Legowski PA. Dairy products do not lead to alterations in body weight or fat mass in young women in a 1-y intervention. Am J Clin Nutr 2005; 81(4): 751-6.

  42. Berkey CS, Rockett HR. Milk, dairy fat, dietary calcium, and weight gain: a longitudinal study of adolescents. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2005; 159(6): 543-50.

  43. Health D. G. A. C. R. N. a. Y. Dietary Guidelines for Americans. 6th Ed. Washington DC: The Department of Health and Human Services [HHS] and the Department of Agriculture [USDA]; 2005.

  44. Clifton P. The beginning of the end for the dietary calcium and obesity hypothesis? Obesity Research 2001; 13: 1301.

  45. Thompson WG, Holdman NR, Janzow DJ, Slezak JM, Morris KL, Zemel MB. Effect of energy-reduced diets high in dairy products and fiber on weight loss in obese adults. Obesity Research 2005; 13: 1344-53.

  46. WHO/FAO. Expert Consultation on Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases Report of the joint WHO/FAO expert consultation. Geneva: WHO, 2003.

  47. Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes; Food and Nutrition Board. 1997 Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride. Washington DC: National Academy Press, Institute of Medicine, 1997.

  48. Bonjour JP, Ammann P. Protein intake and bone growth. Can J Appl Physiol 2001; 26(Suppl.): S153-S166.

  49. Bonjour JP, Chevalley T. Gain in bone mineral mass in prepubertal girls 3.5 years after discontinuation of calcium supplementation: A follow-up study. Lancet 2001; 358(9289): 1208-12.

  50. Holbrook TL, Barrett-Connor E. Dietary calcium and risk of hip fracture: 14-year prospective population study. Lancet 1998; 2(8619): 1046-9.

  51. Paganini-Hill A, Chao A. Exercise and other factors in the prevention of hip fracture: The Leisure World Study. Epidemiology 1991; 2(1): 16-25.

  52. Cummings SR, Nevitt MC. Risk factors for hip fracture in white women. Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group. N Engl J Med 1995; 332(12): 767-73.

  53. Meyer HE, Pedersen JI. Dietary factors and the incidence of hip fracture in middle-aged Norwegians. A prospective study. Am J Epidemiol 1997; 145(2): 117-23.

  54. Feskanich D, Willett WC. Calcium, vitamin D, milk consumption, and hip fractures: a prospective study among postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 2003; 77(2): 504-11.

  55. Michaelsson K, Melhus H. Dietary calcium and vitamin D intake in relation to osteoporotic fracture risk. Bone 2003; 32(6): 694-703.

  56. Pereira MA, Jacobs DR. Dairy consumption, obesity, and the insulin resistance syndrome in young adults: The CARDIA Study. JAMA 2002; 287(16): 2081-9.

  57. Elwood PC, Pickering JE. Milk drinking, ischaemic heart disease and ischaemic stroke II. Evidence from cohort studies. Eur J Clin Nutr 2004; 58(5): 718-24.

  58. Appel LJ, Moore TJ.A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. DASH Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med 1997; 336(16): 1117-24.

  59. Sacks FM, Svetkey LP. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med 2001; 344(1): 3-10.

  60. Barr SI, McCarron DA. Effects of increased consumption of fluid milk on energy and nutrient intake, body weight, and cardiovascular risk factors in healthy older adults. J Am Diet Assoc 2000; 100(7): 810-17.

  61. Qin LQ, Xu JY. Milk consumption is a risk factor for prostate cancer: Meta-analysis of case-control studies. Nutr Cancer 2004; 48(1): 22-7.

  62. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective. Washington DC: AICR; 2007.

  63. Fairfield KM, Hunter DJ. A prospective study of dietary lactose and ovarian cancer. Int J Cancer 2004; 110(2): 271-7.

  64. Holmes MD, Pollak MN. Dietary correlates of plasma insulinlike growth factor I and insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3 concentrations. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002; 11(9): 852-61.

  65. Giovannucci E, Pollak M. Nutritional predictors of insulin-like growth factor I and their relationships to cancer in men. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2003; 12(2): 84-9.

  66. Steele VE, Bagheri D. Preclinical efficacy studies of green and black tea extracts. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1999; 220(4): 210-12.

  67. Higdon JV, Frei B. Tea catechins and polyphenols: Health effects, metabolism, and antioxidant functions. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2003; 43(1): 89-143.

  68. Kamath AB, Wang L. Antigens in tea-beverage prime human Vgamma 2Vdelta 2 T cells in vitro and in vivo for memory and nonmemory antibacterial cytokine responses. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003; 100(10): 6009-14.

  69. Bukowski JF, Brenner MB. Human gamma delta T cells recognize alkylamines derived from microbes, edible plants, and tea: Implications for innate immunity. Immunity 1999; 11: 57- 65.

  70. Wang L, Das H, Li L, Bukowski JF. Antibacterial effect of human V gamma 2V delta 2 T cells in vivo. J Clin Invest 2001; 108: 1349-57.

  71. Peters U, Poole C. Does tea affect cardiovascular disease? A meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol 2001; 154(6): 495-503.

  72. Geleijnse JM, Launer LJ. Inverse association of tea and flavonoid intakes with incident myocardial infarction: The Rotterdam Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2002; 75(5): 880-6.

  73. Sesso HD, Gaziano JM. Flavonoid intake and the risk of cardiovascular disease in women. Am J Clin Nutr 2003; 77(6): 1400-8.

  74. Sesso HD, Paffenbarger RS. Lack of association between tea and cardiovascular disease in college alumni. Int J Epidemiol 2003; 32(4): 527-33.

  75. Nakachi K, Matsuyama S. Preventive effects of drinking green tea on cancer and cardiovascular disease: epidemiological evidence for multiple targeting prevention. Biofactors 2000; 13(1-4): 49-54.

  76. Duffy SJ, Keaney JF. Short- and long-term black tea consumption reverses endothelial dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation 2001; 104(2): 151-6.

  77. Hodgson JM, Puddey IB. Regular ingestion of black tea improves brachial artery vasodilator function. Clin Sci (Lond) 2002; 102(2): 195-201.

  78. Hirata K, Shimada K. Black tea increases coronary flow velocity reserve in healthy male subjects. Am J Cardiol 2004; 93(11): 1384-8,A6.

  79. Anter EK, Chen H. p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activates eNOS in endothelial cells by an estrogen receptor alphadependent pathway in response to black tea polyphenols. Circ Res 2005; 96(10): 1072-8.

  80. Williams RJ, Spencer JP. Flavonoids: Antioxidants or signalling molecules? Free Radic Biol Med 2004; 36(7): 838-49.

  81. Van Dam RM, Feskens EJ. Coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Lancet 2002; 360(9344): 1477-8.

  82. Rosengren A, Dotevall A.Coffee and incidence of diabetes in Swedish women: a prospective 18-year follow-up study. J Intern Med 2004; 255(1): 89-95.

  83. Salazar-Martinez E, Willett WC. Coffee consumption and risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 2004; 140(1): 1-8.

  84. Tuomilehto J, Hu G. Coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus among middle-aged Finnish men and women. JAMA 2004; 291(10): 1213-39.

  85. Giovannucci E. Meta-analysis of coffee consumption and risk of colorectal cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1998; 147(11): 1043-52.

  86. Tavani A, La Vecchia C. Coffee, decaffeinated coffee, tea and cancer of the colon and rectum: a review of epidemiological studies, 1990-2003. Cancer Causes Control 2004; 15(8): 743-57.

  87. Hernan MA, Takkouche B. A meta-analysis of coffee drinking, cigarette smoking, and the risk of Parkinson’s disease. Ann Neurol 2002; 52(3): 276-84.

  88. Ascherio A, Weisskopf MG. Coffee consumption, gender, and Parkinson’s disease mortality in the cancer prevention study II cohort: The modifying effects of estrogen. Am J Epidemiol 2004; 160(10): 977-84.

  89. Ascherio A, H. Chen. Caffeine, postmenopausal estrogen, and risk of Parkinson’s disease. Neurology 2003; 60(5): 790-5.

  90. Klatsky AL, Armstrong MA. Coffee, tea, and mortality. Ann Epidemiol 1993; 3(4): 375-81.

  91. Kawachi I, Willett WC. A prospective study of coffee drinking and suicide in women. Arch Intern Med 1996; 156(5): 521-S25.

  92. Tanskanen A, Tuomilehto J. Heavy coffee drinking and the risk of suicide. Eur J Epidemiol 2000; 16(9): 789-91.

  93. Kawachi I, Colditz GA. Does coffee drinking increase the risk of coronary heart disease? Results from a meta-analysis. Br Heart J 1994; 72(3): 269-75.

  94. Willett WC, Stampfer MJ. Coffee consumption and coronary heart disease in women. A ten-year follow-up. JAMA 1996; 275(6): 458-62.

  95. Kleemola P, Jousilahti P. Coffee consumption and the risk of coronary heart disease and death. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160(22): 3393-400.

  96. Jee SH, He J. Coffee consumption and serum lipids: a metaanalysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. Am J Epidemiol 2001; 153(4): 353-62.

  97. Urgert R, Katan MB. The cholesterol-raising factor from coffee beans. J R Soc Med 1996; 89(11): 618-23.

  98. Gross G, Jaccaud E. Analysis of the content of the diterpenes cafestol and kahweol in coffee brews. Food Chem Toxicol 1997; 35(6): 547-54.

  99. Shields DH, Corrales KM. Gourmet coffee beverage consumption among college women. J Am Diet Assoc 2004; 104(4): 650-3.

  100. McCusker RR, Goldberger BA, Cone EJ. Caffeine content of energy drinks, carbonated sodas, and other beverages. J Anal Toxicol 2006; 30(2): 112-14.

  101. Armstrong LE. Caffeine, body fluid-electrolyte balance, and exercise performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2002; 12(2): 189-206.

  102. Armstrong L, Pumerantz A. Fluid-electrolyte and renal indices of hydration during eleven days of controlled caffeine consumption. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2005; 15: 252- 65.

  103. Nawrot P, Jordan S. Effects of caffeine on human health. Food Addit Contam 2003; 20(1): 1-30.

  104. Dlugosz L, Belanger K. Maternal caffeine consumption and spontaneous abortion: a prospective cohort study. Epidemiology 1996; 7(3): 250-5.

  105. Hinds TS, West WL. The effect of caffeine on pregnancy outcome variables. Nutr Rev 1996; 54(7): 203-7.

  106. Rasch V. Cigarette, alcohol, and caffeine consumption: risk factors for spontaneous abortion. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2003; 82(2): 182-8.

  107. Jee SH, He J. The effect of chronic coffee drinking on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. Hypertension 1999; 33(2): 647-52.

  108. Noordzij M, Uiterwaal CS. Blood pressure response to chronic intake of coffee and caffeine: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Hypertens 2005; 23(5): 921-8.

  109. Klag MJ, Wang NY. Coffee intake and risk of hypertension: The Johns Hopkins precursors study. Arch Intern Med 2002; 162(6): 657-62.

  110. Cadarette B, Levine L. Effects of varied dosages of caffeine on endurance performance to fatigue. In: Knuttgen H, Vogel J, Poortmans J (eds.). Biochemistry of exercise. Champaign IL: Human Kinetics; 1983, p. 871-6.

  111. Graham TE, Spriet LL. Metabolic, catecholamine, and exercise performance responses to various doses of caffeine. J Appl Physiol 1995; 78(3): 867-74.

  112. Jacobson BH, Edgley BM. Effects of caffeine on simple reaction time and movement time. Aviat Space Environ Med 1987; 58(12): 1153-6.

  113. Frewer L, Lader M. The effects of caffeine on two computerized tests of attention and vigilance. Hum Psychopharm 1991; 6: 119-28.

  114. Battig K, Buzzi R. Effect of coffee on the speed of subject-paced information processing. Neuropsychobiology 1986; 16(2- 3): 126-30.

  115. Lieberman HR, Tharion WJ. Effects of caffeine, sleep loss, and stress on cognitive performance and mood during U.S. Navy SEAL training. Sea-Air-Land. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2002; 164(3): 250-61.

  116. Rogers PJ,Dernoncourt C. Regular caffeine consumption: A balance of adverse and beneficial effects for mood and psychomotor performance. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1998; 59(4): 1039-45.

  117. Rogers PJ. Caffeine, mood and mental performance in everyday life. Nutrition Bulletin 2007; 32(s1): 84-9.

  118. Soffritti M, Belpoggi F, Degli Esposti D, Lambertini L, Tibaldi E, Rigano A. First experimental demonstration of the multipotential carcinogenic effects of aspartame administered in the feed to Sprague- Dawley rats. Environ Health Perspect 2006; 114: 379-85.

  119. Soffritti M, Belpoggi F, Tibaldi E, Degli Esposti D, Dawley ML. Life-span exposure to low doses of aspartame beginning during prenatal life increases cancer effects in rats. Environ Health Perspect 2007; 115: 1293-7.

  120. Gallus S, Scotti L, Negri E, Talamini R, Franceschi S, Montella M, et al. Artificial sweeteners and cancer risk in a network of case-control studies. Ann Oncol 2007; 18: 40-4.

  121. Lim U, Subar AM, Mouw T, Hartge P, Morton LM, Stolzenberg R, et al. Consumption of aspartame-containing beverages and incidence of hematopoietic and brain malignancies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2006; 15: 1654-59.

  122. Sclafani A. Learned controls of ingestive behaviour. Appetite 1997; 29(2): 153-8.

  123. Davidson TL, Swithers SE. A pavlovian approach to the problem of obesity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2004; 28(7): 933-5.

  124. Beauchamp GK, Moran M. Dietary experience and sweet taste preference in human infants. Appetite 1982; 3(2): 139-52.

  125. Pepino MY, Mennella JA. Factors contributing to individual differences in sucrose preference. Chem Senses 2005; 30(Suppl. 1): i319-i320.

  126. Schiffman SS, Graham BG. Elevated and sustained desire for sweet taste in african-americans: a potential factor in the development of obesity. Nutrition 2000; 16(10): 886-93.

  127. Tam CS, Garnett SP. Soft drink consumption and excess weight gain in australian school students: results from the Nepean study. Int J Obes 2006; 30(7): 1091-3.

  128. Sanigorski AM, Bell AC. Association of key foods and beverages with obesity in Australian schoolchildren. Public Health Nutr 2007; 10(2): 152-7.

  129. Bazzano LA, Tricia YL, Joshipura KJ, Hu FB. Fruit and vegetable intake and risk of diabetes in women. Boston: Harvard University Department of Nutrition; 2007.

  130. Temme E, Mensink R. Health effects of saturated fatty acids. In: Sadler M, Strain J, Caballer B (eds.). Encyclopedia of human nutrition. London: Academic Press; 1998.

  131. Armstrong L. Considerations for replacement beverages: Fluid-electrolyte balance and heat illness. Fluid Replacement and Heat Stress. B. Marriott, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences; 1994. p. 7-54.

  132. Services, U. S. D. o. A. U. S. D. o. H. a. H. Home and Garden Bulletin No. 232. Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1990.

  133. Meyerhoff DJ, Bode C. Health risks of chronic moderate and heavy alcohol consumption: How much is too much? Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2005; 29(7): 1334-40.

  134. Alcoholism, NI o AA. Helping patients with alcohol problems: A health practitioner’s guide. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism [web site]. Last updated March, 2004. Disponible en: http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/ Practitioner/HelpingPatients.htm [consultado 2005 abril 12].

  135. Klatsky AL. Drink to your health? Sci Am 2003; 288(2): 74-81.

  136. Rimm EB, Klatsky A. Review of moderate alcohol consumption and reduced risk of coronary heart disease: is the effect due to beer, wine, or spirits. BMJ 1996; 312(7033): 731-6.

  137. Reynolds K, Lewis B. Alcohol consumption and risk of stroke: a meta-analysis. JAMA 2003; 289(5): 579-88.

  138. Ajani UA, Hennekens CH. Alcohol consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus among US male physicians. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160(7): 1025-30.

  139. Conigrave KM, Hu BF. A prospective study of drinking patterns in relation to risk of type 2 diabetes among men. Diabetes 2001; 50(10): 2390-5.

  140. Leitzmann MF, Giovannucci EL. Prospective study of alcohol consumption patterns in relation to symptomatic gallstone disease in men. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1999; 23(5): 835-41.

  141. Leitzmann MF, Tsai CJ. Alcohol consumption in relation to risk of cholecystectomy in women. Am J Clin Nutr 2003; 78(2): 339-47.

  142. Disabilities, A.A.o.P.C.o.S.A.a.C.o. C. W. Fetal alcohol syndrome and alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorders. Pediatrics 2000; 106(2 Pt 1):358-361.

  143. Mann RE, Smart RG. The epidemiology of alcoholic liver disease. Alcohol Res Health 2003; 27(3): 209-19.

  144. Xin X, He J. Effects of alcohol reduction on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Hypertension 2001; 38(5): 1112-17.

  145. Piano MR. Alcoholic cardiomyopathy: Incidence, clinical characteristics, and pathophysiology. Chest 2002; 121(5): 1638-50.

  146. Ruigomez A, Johansson S. Incidence of chronic atrial fibrillation in general practice and its treatment pattern. J Clin Epidemiol 2002; 55(4): 358-63.

  147. Zuccala G, Onder G. Dose-related impact of alcohol consumption on cognitive function in advanced age: results of a multicenter survey. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2001; 25(12): 1743-8.

  148. Ferreira SE, Mello MT. Does an energy drink modify the effects of alcohol in a maximal effort test? Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2004; 28(9): 1408-12.

  149. Ferreira SE, Mello MT. Effects of energy drink ingestion on alcohol intoxication. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2006; 30(4): 598- 605.

  150. Jones C, Woods K. Sugar, drinks, deprivation and dental caries in 14-year-old children in the north west of England in 1995. Community Dent Health 1999; 16(2): 68-71.

  151. Harnack L, Stang J. Soft drink consumption among US children and adolescents: Nutritional consequences. J Am Diet Assoc 1999; 99(4): 436-41.

  152. Ludwig DS. The glycemic index: physiological mechanisms relating to obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. JAMA 2002; 287(18): 2414-23.

  153. Berkey CS, Rockett HR. Sugar-added beverages and adolescent weight change. Obes Res 2004; 12(5): 778-8.

  154. Davidson TL, Swithers SE. Food viscosity influences caloric intake compensation and body weight in rats. Obes Res 2005; 13(3): 537-44.

  155. Bray GA, Nielsen SJ. Consumption of high-fructose corn syrup in beverages may play a role in the epidemic of obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 79(4): 537-43.

  156. Akhavan T, Anderson GH. Effects of glucose-to-fructose ratios in solutions on subjective satiety, food intake, and satiety hormones in young men 1. Am J Clin Nutr 2007; 86: 1354-63.

  157. Johnson RJ, Segal MS. Potential role of sugar (fructose) in the epidemic of hypertension, obesity and the metabolic syndrome, diabetes, kidney disease, and cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2007; 86(4): 899-906.

  158. Nielsen SJ, Popkin BM. Changes in beverage intake between 1977 and 2001. Am J Prev Med 2004; 27(3): 205-10.

  159. Kaitosaari T, Ronnemaa T. Effect of 7-year infancy-onset dietary intervention on serum lipoproteins and lipoprotein subclasses in healthy children in the prospective, randomized Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project for Children (STRIP) study. Circulation 2003; 108(6): 672-7.

  160. Kaitosaari T, Ronnemaa T. Low-saturated fat dietary counseling starting in infancy improves insulin sensitivity in 9-yearold healthy children: The Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project for Children (STRIP) study. Diabetes Care 2006; 29(4): 781-5.

  161. Endorsed by the American Academy of Pediatrics, Gidding SS. Dietary recommendations for children and adolescents: a guide for practitioners: Consensus statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2005; 112(13): 2061-75.

  162. Food and Agriculture Organization. Technical consultation on food fortification: Technology and quality control. Report of an FAO technical meeting in Rome, 20-25 November 1995. Rome: FAO, 1996.




2020     |     www.medigraphic.com