2009, Número 2
Rev Mex Cardiol 2009; 20 (2)
Introducción
Bases fisiopatológicas del tratamiento de la hipertensión
arterial esencial
Justificación
Concepto
Fisiopatología de la hipertensión arterial esencial
Tratamiento del enfermo hipertenso
A quién tratar
Recomendaciones generales
Combinación de medicamentos
-Combinaciones recomendadas
-Combinaciones no recomendadas
Uso racional de las combinaciones
Hipertensión arterial y situaciones especiales
Farmacología de antihipertensivos
Calcioantagonistas
Seguridad
Combinaciones de calcioantagonistas y antagonistas de los receptores de AT1
Antagonistas de los receptores AT1 (ARA II)
Seguridad
Inhibidores de la enzima convertidora de angiotensina
Seguridad
Inhibidores directos de renina (IDR)
Seguridad
Diuréticos
Seguridad
Betabloqueadores
Seguridad
Interacciones farmacológicas
Condiciones especiales
Tratamiento de la hipertensión arterial en el paciente con resistencia
a la insulina y disglucemias
Hipertensión arterial y diabetes mellitus
-Retinopatía diabética
-Conclusiones
Hipertensión arterial en obesidad y síndrome metabólico
Fisiopatología
Consideraciones clínicas
Implicaciones terapéuticas
Tratamiento de hipertensión arterial en insuficiencia renal y microalbuminuria
Fisiopatología de la nefropatía hipertensiva Tratamiento
Inhibición del sistema de renina-angiotensina (sra)
Inhibidores de enzima convertidora de angiotensina
Antagonistas de receptores tipo 1 de angiotensina II (ARA)
Diuréticos
Calcioantagonistas
Betabloqueadores
Alfabloqueadores
Algoritmo de tratamiento sugerido
Tratamiento de la hipertensión arterial e insuficiencia cardiaca
Inhibidores de la enzima convertidora de angiotensina
Antagonistas de los receptores de angiotensina II
Diuréticos
Betabloqueadores
Recomendaciones
Hipertensión sistólica aislada
Definición y trascendencia epidemiológica
Fisiopato logía
Diagnóstico diferencial
Importancia del tratamiento de la HSA
Beneficios del tratamiento farmacológico
Modificaciones conductuales
Tratamiento farmacológico
Combinación de medicamentos
Tratamiento en condiciones asociadas con la HSA
Factores de riesgo del tratamiento farmacológico
Adherencia al tratamiento de la hipertensión arterial
Lineamientos generales de tratamiento
Tratamiento de la HAS
Anexo 1. Tratamiento de HAS con patologías específicas e indicaciones preferenciales
Referencias bibliográficas
Córdoba VJA, Hernández ÁM , Lezama FMA, Oseguera MJ, Alcocer DBL, Rodríguez GC, Fernández LM, Cardona MEG, Verdejo PJ, Parra CJZ, Guerrero MFJ, Barriguete-Meléndez JA, Ceballos G, Necoechea AJC, Barquera S , Aguilar SCA, González CA, González PJ, Álvarez LCH, Lara EA, Hernández GHR
Idioma: Español
Referencias bibliográficas: 414
Paginas: 55-104
Archivo PDF: 532.04 Kb.
FRAGMENTO
MAURICIO HERNÁNDEZ ÁVILA, Presidente del Comité Consultivo Nacional de Normalización de Prevención y Control de Enfermedades, con fundamento en los artículos 39 de la Ley Orgánica de la Administración Pública Federal; 3º, fracciones II y XVI, 13 apartado A), fracción I, 158, 159, 160 y 161 de la Ley General de Salud; 3º, fracción XI, 38, fracción II, 40, fracciones III y XI, 46 y 47 de la Ley Federal sobre Metrología y Normalización; 28 y 33 del Reglamento de la Ley Federal sobre Metrología y Normalización; 6º, fracción XVII, y 34, fracción VI, del Reglamento Interior de la Secretaría de Salud, me permito ordenar la publicación en el Diario Oficial de la Federación el Proyecto de Modificación de la Norma Oficial Mexicana PROY-NOM-030-SSA2-2007, para la Prevención, Detección, Diagnóstico, Tratamiento y Control de la Hipertensión Arterial Sistémica.
REFERENCIAS (EN ESTE ARTÍCULO)
Oparil Suzanne, Zaman Amin et al. Pathogenesis of Hypertension. Ann Intern Med 2003;139:761-776.
Kannel WB. Hypertension and the risk of cardiovascular disease. In: JH Laragh, BM Brenner. Hypertension: Pathophysiology Diagnosis, and Management. New York, Raven Press 1990:101-117.
MacMahon S, Peto R, Cutler J. et al. Blood pressure, Stroke and coronary heart disease. Part I. Prolonged differences in blood pressure: prospective observational studies corrected for the regression dilution bias. Lancet 1990;335:765-774.
Chávez DR. La hipertensión arterial y el procedimiento en las encuestas. Estudios de población encauzados al control del padecimiento. Arch Inst Cardiol Méx 1986;56:453-458.
García de Alba JE, Morán GR, Cárdenas RC, Ruiz MP. La hipertensión arterial como problema de salud pública. Sal Púb Méx 1977;5:365-373.
Frohlich DE. Beta-adrenergic blockade in circulatory regulation of hyperkinetic states. Clin J Cardiol 1977;27:195-199.
Ferrario CM, Schiavone MT. The renin-angiotensin system: Importance in physiology and pathology. Cleveland J Med 1989;56:439-446.
Carretero OA, Scicl G. Local hormonal factors (intracrine, autocrine and paracrine) in hypertension. Hypertension. 1991(suppl 1) 18:S158-S165.
Guyton AC. Physiologic regulation of arterial pressure. Am J Cardiol 1961;8:401-407.
Brenner BM, García DL, Anderson S. Glomeruli and blood presure. Less of one, more the other? Am J Hypertens 1988;1:335-347.
Moller DE, Flier JS. Insulin resistance: mechanisms, syndromes and implications. N Engl J Med 1991;325:938-948.
Vanhoutte PM, How to assess endothelial function in human blood vessels. J Hypertension 1999;17:1047-1058.
John S, Schmieder RE. Impaired endothelial function in arterial hypertension and hypercholesterolemia: potential mechanisms and differences. J Hypertension 2000;18:363-374.
Alcocer L. Posibilidades patogénicas del daño hipertensivo. En: Hipertensión Arterial Sistémica, Sánchez Torres G (ed). Sociedad Mexicana de Cardiología 1993, México.
Reaten MG, Lthelli H, Lansberg L. Hypertension and associated metabolic abnormalities- the role of insulin resistance and the sympathoadrenal system. N Engl J Med 1998;334:374-381.
Hansson L, Zanchetti A, Carruthers SG, Dahlof B, Elmfeld D, Julios S, et al, for the HOT Study Group. Effects of intensive blood pressure lowering and low-dose aspirin in patients with hypertension: Principal results of the Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) randomized trial. Lancet 1998;351:1755-1762.
Lazarus JM, Bourgoignie JJ, Buckalew VM, et al, for the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. Achievement and safety of a low blood pressure goal in chronic renal disease: the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. Hypertension 1997;29:641-650.
World Health Organization. The World Health Report 2002: Risk to Health 2002 Geneva: World Health Organization.
Brown MJ, Crickshank AF, MacGregor GA, Poulter NR, Russell GI, et al. Executive Committee, British Hypertension Society. Better Blood pressure control: how to combine drugs. J Hum Hypertens 2003;17:81-86, actualizado en junio de 2006 from NICE Clinical Guidelines (http//www.nice.org.uk/ CG034guidance).
The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. Effects of an Angiotensin-Converting-Enzyme Inhibitor, Ramipril, on Death from Cardiovascular Causes, Myocardial infarction, and Stroke in High-Risk Patients. N Engl J Med 2000;342:145-153.
Lindholm LH, Ibsen H, Borch-Johnsen K. Risk of new-onset diabetes in the Losartan Intervention for Endpoint reduction in hypertension study. J Hypertens 2002;20:1879-1886.
Hansson L, Lindholm LH, Niskanen L, et al, for the Captopril Prevention Project (CAPPP) study group. Effect of angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibition compared with conventional therapy on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in hypertension: the Captopril Prevention Project (CAPPP) randomized trial. Lancet 1999;353:611-616.
Wright JT Jr, Agodoa L, Contreras G. Successful blood pressure control in the african-american Study of Kidney Disease and Hypertension. Arch Intern Med 2002;162:1636-1642.
Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Clarke WR, et al. Renoprotective effect of the angiotensin-receptor antagonist irbesartan in patients with nephropathy due to Type-2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2001;345:851-860.
Brenner BM, Cooper ME. From the REENAL Study Investigators. Effects of losartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type-2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2001;345:861-869.
Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (HOPE) Study Investigators. Effects of ramipril on cardiovascular and microvascular outcomes in people with diabetes mellitus: results of the HOPE study and MICROHOPE substudy. Lancet 2000;355:253-259.
Zanchetti A, Ruilope LM. Antihypertensive treatment in patients with Type-2 diabetes mellitus: what guidance from recent controlled randomized trials? J Hypertens 2002;20:2099-2110.
The SOLVD Investigators. Effect of enalapril on survival in patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fractions and congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med 1991;325:293-302.
Flather MD, Yusuf S, Kober L, Pffefer M. Long termn ACE-inhibitors therapy in patients with heart failure or left ventricular dysfunction. A systematic overview of data for individual patients. ACE-Inhibitor Myocardial Infarction Collaborative Group. Lancet 2000;355:1575-1581.
Pitt B, Poole-Wilson PA, Segal R. Effect of losartan compared with captopril on mortality in patients with symptomatic heart failure: randomized trial-the Losartan Heart Failure Survival Study ELITE II. Lancet. 2000;355:1582-1587.
Gottdiener JS, Reda DJ, Massie BM, Matterson BJ, for the Cooperative Study Group on Antihypertensive Agents. Effect of single-drug therapy on reduction of left ventricular mass in mild to moderate hypertension: comparison of six antihypertensive agents. Circulation 1997;95:2007-2014.
Debereux RV, Palmieri V, Sharpe N. Effects of once-daily angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition and calcium channel blockade-based antihypertensive treatment regimens on left ventricular hypertrophy and diastolic filling in hypertension. The Prospective Randomized Enalapril Study Evaluating Regression of Ventricular Enlargement (PRESERVE) trial. Circulation 2001;104:1248-1254.
Cuspide C, Muiesan ML, Valagussa L, on behalf of the CATCH investigators.. Comparative effects of candesartan and enalapril on left ventricular hypertrophy in patients
with essential hypertension: the Candesartan Assessment in the Treatment of Cardiac Hypertrophy (CATCH study). J Hypertens 2002;20:2293-2300.
Dahlöf B, Zanchetti A, Diez J, Nicholls MG. Effects of Losartan and Atenolol on left ventricular mass and neurohormonal profile and patients with essential hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy. J Hypertens. 2002;20:1855-1864.
Lindholm LH, Ibsen H, Dahlöf B, Debereux RV. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in patients with diabetes in the Losartan Intervention for endpoint reduction in hypertension study (LIFE). A randomized trial against Atenolol. Lancet 2002;359:1004-1010.
Cardona-Muñoz E, Carranza-Madrigal J, Hernández-Hernñandez H. Tratamiento de la Hipertensión Arterial. II Consenso Nacional de Hipertensión Arterial. Rev Mex Cardiolología 2001;12:25-33.
Epstein. Dihydropyridine calcium channel antagonist in the management of hypertension. Drugs 2007;67:1309-1327.
Goodman and Gillman, The Pharmacological basis of therapeutics, 11 ed, on line.
The Task Force for the Management of Arterial Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). 2007 Guidelines for the management of arterial Hypertension. J Hypertens 2007;25:1105-1187.
Poldermans. Tolerability and blood pressure lowering efficacy of the combination of Amlo plus valsa compared with lisino-HCTZ. Clin Ther 2007;29: 279-289.
Smith. Amlo and Valsa combined and as mono is stage 2, elderly, and black hypertensive patients. J Clin Hypertens 2007;9:355-364.
Philip. Efficacy and tolerability of Amlo and Valsa in combination and as mono in adult with mild to moderate HTN. Clin Ther 2007;29:563-580.
Cheung. Therapeutic potential of angiotensin receptor blockers in hypertension, Exp Opin 2006;15: 625-635.
Basile. The importance of early antihypertensive efficacy: The role of angiotensin II receptor blocker therapy. J Hum Hypertens 2006;20:169-175.
Kjeldsen. Hypertension mega-trial with cardiovascular end points: Effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers.
Frampton. Aliskiren, A review of its use in the management of hypertension. Drugs 2007;67:1767-1792.
Gallagher. Diuretics: A modern day treatment option?, Nephrology 2006;11:419-427.
Kaplan. Diuretics as a basis of antihypertensive therapy. Drugs 2006; 59 suppl 2: S21-S25.
Ong. ²-blockers in hypertension and cardiovascular disease. BMJ 2007;334:946-949.
Sowers JR, Epstein M, Frolich ED. Diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease: an update. Hypertension 2001;37:1053.
Beckman JA, Crenger MA, Lobby P. Diabetes and atherosclerosis: epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management. JAMA 2002;287:2570.
Hypertension in Diabetes Study (HDS) I. Prevalence of hypertension in newly presenting type 2 diabetic patients and t. J Hypertens 1993;11:309.
Sowers JR, Epstein M. Diabetes mellitus and associated hypertension, vascular disease, and nephropathy. Hypertension 1995; 26 (Part 1): 869-879.
Fuller JH, Head J. Blood pressure, proteinuria, and the relationship with circulatory mortality: The WHO Multinational Study of vascular disease in diabetics. Diabetes & Metab 1989;15:273.
Nielsen S, Schmitz A, Rehling M, Mogensen CE. Systolic blood pressure relates to the rate of decline of glomerular filtration rate in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 1993;16:1427.
Tarnow L, Rossing P, Gall MA, Mielsen F, Parving HH. Prevalence of arterial hypertension in diabetic patients before and after the JNC V. Diabetes Care 1994;17:1247.
Velázquez Monroy O, Rosas Peralta M, Lara Esqueda A, Pastelín Hernández G, Grupo ENSA 2000, Attie F, et al. Hipertensión arterial en México: Resultados de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud (ENSA) 2000. Arch Cardiol Mex 2002;72:71-84.
UKPDS group: UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Tight blood pressure control and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes. UKPDS 38. BMJ 1998;317:703-713.
Whelton PK, He J, Appel LJ, Cutler JA, Havas S, Kotchen TA, Roccela EJ, Scout R, Vallbona C, Winston MC, Karimbakas J. The National Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee: Primary prevention of Hypertension: clinical and public health advisory from the National High Blood Pressure Education Program. JAMA 2002;188:1882.
Schrier RW, Estacio RO, Ester A, Mehler P. Effects of aggressive blood pressure control in normotensive type 2 diabetic patients on albuminuria, retinopathy and stroke. Kidney Int 2002;61:1086.
The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. NEJM 2000;342:145.
The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. The JNC 7 Report. JAMA 2003;289:2560-2572.
Atkins RC, Briganti EM, Lewis JB, Hunsicker LG, Braden G, Champion de Crespigny PJ, et al. Proteinuria reduction and progression to renal failure in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and overt nephropathy. Am J Kidney Dis 2005;45:281-287.
Mancia G, Grassi G. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure control in antihypertensive drug trials. J Hypertens 2002;29:1461.
Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialists Collaboration. Effects of different blood pressure-lowering regimens on major cardiovascular events in individuals with and without diabetes mellitus. Results of prospectively designed overviews of randomized trials. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:1410.
Whelton PK, Barzilay J, Cushman WC, Davis BR, Iliamathi E, Dostis JB, Llenen FH, Lous GT, Margolis KL, Mathis DE, Moloo J, Nwachuku C, Parebianco D., Parish DC, Pressel S, Simmons DL, Thadani U. ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group: Clinical outcomes in antihypertensive treatment of type 2 diabetes, impaired fasting glucose concentration, and normoglycemia: Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:1401.
Goldstein S. Beta-blockers in hypertensive and coronary Heart disease. Arch Intern Med 1996;156:1267.
Nathan S, Pepine CJ, Bakris GL. Calcium antagonists: effects on cardiorenal risk in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 2005;46:637.
Ruggenenti P, Farsi A, Ilieva AP, Bruno S, Iliev IP, Brusegan V, Rubis N, Gherardi G, Arnoldo F, Ganeva M, Ehe-Iordache B, Gaspari F, Perna A, Bossi A, Trevisan R, Dodesini AR, Remuzzi G. Bergamo Nephrologic Diabetes Complications Trial (BENEDICT) Investigator: Preventing microalbuminuria in type 2 diabetes. N England J Med 2004;351:1941.
Barnett AH, Bain SC, Bouter P, Karlberg B, Madsbad S, Jervell J, Mustonen J. Diabetics Exponed to Telmisartan and Enalapril Study Group: Angiotensin-receptor blockade versus converting-enzyme inhibition in type 2 diabetes an nephropathy. N England J Med 2004;351:1952.
National Kidney Foundation: Guideline 8: Pharmacological therapy: diabetic kidney disease. Am J kidney Dis 2004;43 (Suppl 1): S142.
Andersen NH, Poulsen PL, Knudsen ST, Poulsen SH, Eiskjaer H, Hansen KW, et al. Long-term dual blockade with candesartan and lisinopril in hypertensive patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care 2005;28:273.
Jandeleit K, Cooper M. Hypertension and Diabetes: Role of Renin-Angiotensin System. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am 2006;35:469-490.
McFarlane S, Kumar A, Sowers J. Mechanism by which Angiotensin Converting Enzime Inhibitors Prevent Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease. Am J Cardiol 2003;91 (suppl) 30H-37H.
Mohamed Q, Gilies M, Wong T. Management of Diabetic Retinopathy. JAMA 2007;298:902-916.
Cordero A, Moreno J, Alegría E. Hipertensión arterial y síndrome metabólico. Rev Esp Cardiol 2005;58 Supl 5.38D-45D.
Rubio AF. Fisiopatología. En: Rubio AF. Hipertensión Arterial, El Manual Moderno. 2005. México. pp: 9-24.
Petersen KF, Shulman GI. Etiology of insulin resistance. Am J Med 2006;119:10S-15S.
Madamanchi NR, Vendrov A, Runge MS. Oxidative Stress and vascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005;25:29-38.
Opie LH. Metabolic syndrome. Circulation 2007;115:e32-e35.
Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Daniels SR, et al. Diagnosis and management of the metabolic syndrome. An American Heart Association/National Heart , Lung and Blood Institute of Health Scientific Statement. Circulation. 2005;112:e285-e291.
Rubio AF. Evaluación del paciente hipertenso. En: Rubio AF. Hipertensión Arterial, El Manual Moderno 2005. México. pp 41-48.
Dahlöf B, Sever PS, Poulter NR, et al. Prevention of cardiovascular events with an antihypertensive regimen of amlodipine adding perindopril as required versus atenolol adding bendoflumethiazide as required in the ASCOT trial. Lancet 2005;366:895-906.
Pepine CJ, Handberg EM, Cooper DM, et al. A Calcium antagonist vs. a non calcium antagonist hypertension treatment strategy for patients with coronary artery disease: The International Verapamil Trandolapril Study (INVEST) a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2003;290:2805-2816.
Rubio AF, Lozano JJ, Vargas G, Rodríguez L, Ramos LM, Escalante B. Efficacy of a fixed-dose combination of trandolapril-verapamil in obese hypertensive patients resistant to monotherapy. Clin and Experiment Hypertens 2006;28:619-624.
Bakris GL, Molitch M, Hewkin A, et al. Differences in glucose tolerance between fixed-dose antihypertensive drug combinations in people with metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care 2006; 29:2592-2597.
Bakris GL, Molitch M, Sowers J, et al. Reversal of new onset diabetes by nondiuretic based fixed-dose antihypertensive drug combinations? Results of STAR 6-month extension (STAR-LET). J Clin Hypertens. 2007;9:A190-A191.
Wenzel RR. Renal Protection in Hypertensive Patients: Selection of antihypertensive therapy. Drugs 2005; 65(suppl 2):29-39.
Joles JA, Koomans HA. Causes and consequences of increased sympathetic activity in renal disease. Hypertension 2004;44:595-601.
Bidani AK, Griffin KA. Pathophysiology of hypertensive renal damage: implications for therapy. Hypertension 2004;44:595-601.
Levey AS, Greene T, Beck GJ, Caggiula AW, Kusek JW, Hunsicker LG, Klahr S. Dietary protein restriction and the progression of chronic renal disease: what have all of the results of the MDRD study shown? Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study group. J Am Soc Nephrol 1999;10:2426–2439.
Bakris GL, Williams L, Dworkin L, et al. for the National Kidney Foundation Hypertension and Diabetes Executive Committees Working Group. Preserving Renal Function in Adults with Hypertension and Diabetes: A Consensus Approach. Am J Kid Dis 2000;36:646-661.
The EUCLID study group. Randomized placebo-controlled trial of lisinopril in normotensive patients with insulin-dependent diabetes and normoalbuminuria or microalbuminuria. Lancet 1997;349:1787-1792.
Fogari R, Derosa G, Zoppi A, et al. Effect of telmisartan-amlodipine combination at different doses on urinary albumin excretion in hypertensive diabetic patients with microalbuminuria. AJH 2007;20:417-422.
Parving HH, Lehnert H, Bröchner-Mortensen J, Gomis R, Andersen S, Arner P, for the Irbesartan in patients with type-2 diabetes and microalbuminuria study group. The effect of irbesartan on the development of diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2001;345:870-878.
Nakao N, Yoshimura A, Morita H, Takada M, Kayano T, Ideura T. Combination treatment of angiotensin-II receptor blocker and angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor in non-diabetic renal disease (COOPERATE): a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 2003;361:117–124.
MacKinnon M, Shurraw S, Akbari A, Knoll GA, Jaffey J, Clark HD. Combination therapy with an angiotensin receptor blocker and an ACE inhibitor in proteinuric renal disease: a systematic review of the efficacy and safety data. Am J Kidney Dis 2006;48:8–20.
Rossing K, Schjoedt KJ, Jensen BR, Boomsma F, Parving HH. Enhanced renoprotective effects of ultrahigh doses of irbesartan in patients with type 2 diabetes and microalbuminuria. Kidney Int 2005;68:1190–1198.
Schmieder RE, Klingbeil AU, Fleischmann EH, Veelken R, Delles C. Additional antiproteinuric effect of ultrahigh dose candesartan: a doubleblind, randomized, prospective study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:3038–3045.
The Captopril Prevention Project (CAPP) Study Group Effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition compared with conventional therapy on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in hypertension: the Captopril Prevention Project (CAPP) randomized trial. Curr Hypertens Rep 1999;1:466-467.
The HOPE study investigators The HOPE (Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation) Study: the design of a large, simple randomized trial of an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ramipril) and vitamin E in patients at high risk of cardiovascular events. Can J Cardiol 1996;12:127-137.
Norris K, Bourgoigne J, Gassman J. Cardiovascular outcomes in the African American Study of Kidney Disease and Hypertension (AASK) Trial. Am J Kidney Dis 2006;48:739-751.
Ruggeneti, P, Fassi A, Ilieva AP, et al. Preventing microalbuminuria in type 2 diabetes. NEJM 2004;351:1941-1951.
Viberti G, Wheeldon NM. MicroAlbuminuria Reduction With VALsartan (MARVAL) Study Investigators. Microalbuminuria reduction with valsartan in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a blood pressure-independent effect. Circulation 2002;106:672-678.
Berl T, Hunsicker LG, Lewis JB. Impact of achieved blood pressure on cardiovascular outcomes in the Irbesartan Diabetic Nephropathy Trial. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:2170-2179.
Abbott K, Basta E, Barkis GL. Blood pressure control and nephroprotection in diabetes. J Clin Pharmacol 2004;44:431-438.
Susic D, Frohlich ED. Nephroprotective effect of antihypertensive drugs in essential hypertension. J Hypertens 1998;16:555-567.
Smith AC, Toto R, Bakris GL. Differential effects of calcium channel blockers on size selectivity of proteinuria in diabetic glomerulopathy. Kidney Int 1998;54:889-896.
Bakris GL, Copley JB, Vicknair N, et al. Calcium channel blockers versus other antihypertensive therapies on progression of NIDDM associated nephropathy. Kidney Int 1996;50:1641-1650.
Bakris GL, Weir MR, DeQuattro V, et al. Effects of an ACE inhibitor/calcium antagonist combination on proteinuria in diabetic nephropathy. Kidney Int 1998;54:1283-1289.
The ALLHAT Officers and Coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker vs diuretic: The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering treatment to prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). JAMA 2002;288:2981–2997.
O’Gara and Suzanne Oparil Gore, Izzo JL Jr, Kaplan NM, O’Connor CM, Rosendorff PC, Black HR, et al. Treatment of Hypertension in the Prevention and Management of Ischemic Heart Disease Cardiology and Epidemiology and Prevention Council for High Blood Pressure Research and the Councils on Clinical Cardiology and Epidemiology and Prevention: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation 2007;115;2761-2788.
First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2). Arch Intern Med 2001;161:996-1002.
Moser M, Hebert PR. Prevention of disease progression, left ventricular hypertrophy and congestive heart failure in hypertension treatment trials. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996;27:1214-1218.
Kalantar-Zadeh K, Block G, Horwich T, Fonarow GC. Reverse epidemiology of conventional cardiovascular risk factors in patients with chronic heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004;43:1439-1444.
Yui Y, Sumiyoshi T, Kodama K, et al. Nifedipine retard was as effective as angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors in preventing cardiac events in high-risk hypertensive patients with diabetes and coronary artery diseaze: the Japan Multicenter Investigation for Cardiovascular Diseases-B (JMIC-B) subgroup analysis. Hypertension Research – Clinical & Experimental 2004;27:449–456.
Hansson L, Lindholm LH, Ekbom T, et al STOP-H2. Randomized trial of old and new antihypertensive drugs in elderly patients: cardiovascular mortality and morbidity the Swedish Trial in Old Patients with Hypertension-2 study. Lancet 1999;354:1751–1756.
Lubsen J, Chadha DR, Yotof YT, Swedberg K. Meta-analysis of morbidity and mortality in five exercise capacity trials evaluating ramipril in chronic congestive cardiac failure. Am J Cardiol 1996;77:1191–1196.
McMurray, et al. Candesartan in Heart failure: Assessment of Reduction in Mortality and morbidity. Lancet 2003;362:767-771.
Faris R, Flather M, Purcell H, Henein M, Poole-Wilson P, Coats A. Current evidence supporting the role of diuretics in heart failure: a meta analysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Cardiol 2002;82:149–158.
Packer M, Bristow MR, Cohn JN, et al for the US Carvedilol Heart Failure Study Group. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1349.
Cleland JG, McGowan J, Clark A, Freemantle N. BMJ. 1999; 318:824.
The MERIT-HF Study Group. Lancet 1999;353:2001.
Bonet S, Agusti A, Arnau JM, Vidal X, Diogene E, Galve E, et al. Beta-adrenergic blocking agents in heart failure: benefits of vasodilating and non-vasodilating agents according to patients’ characteristics: a meta-analysis of clinical trials. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:621–627.
Pitt B, Zannad F, Remme WJ, Cody R, Castaigne A, Perez A, et al. The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe heart failure. Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study Investigators. New Engl J Med 1999;341:709–717.
Spertus JA, Tooley J, Jones P, Poston C, Mahoney E, Deedwania P, et al. Expanding the outcomes in clinical trials of heart failure: the quality of life and economic components of EPHESUS (EPlerenone’s neuroHormonal Efficacy and SUrvival Study). Am Heart J 2002;143:636–642.
Packer M, O’Connor C, Ghali J, Pressler M, Carson P, et al. Effect of amlodipine on morbidity and mortality in severe chronic heart failure. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1107-1114.
World Hypertension League. Treatment targets. Systolic or diastolic pressure? Weinberger MH. Available at: http://www.worldhypertensionleague. org/pages/professionals. Consulta; 01/09/2007
Kannel WB, Cupples LA. How useful is diastolic blood pressure? Insights from the Framingham Study. J Am Coll Cardiol 1987;9:114A.
Alli C, Avanzini F, Bettelli G, et al. The long-term prognostic significance of repeated blood pressure measurements in the elderly: SPAA (Studio Sulla Pressione Arteriosa nell, Anziano) 10-year follow-up. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:1205-1212.
Wilking SV, Belanger A, Kannel WB, D, Agostino RB, Steel K. Determinants of isolated systolic hypertension. JAMA. 1988;260:3451-3455.
Elliot WJ. Which blood pressure measurement is more important in the elderly? Arch Intern Med 1999;159:1165-1166.
O, Rourke MF, Hayward ChS, Lehmann ED. Arterial stifness. In Oparil S, Weber MA (eds.) Hypertension: A companion to Brenner and Rector, s The Kidney. Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders Company 2000; pp. 134-151.
Franklin SS, Gustin W IV, Wong ND, et al. Hemodynamic patterns of age-related change in blood pressure: The Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 1997;96:308-315.
Kannel WB, Gordon T, Schwartz MJ. Systolic versus diastolic blood pressure and risk of coronary heart disease: The Framingham Study. Am J Cardiol 1971;27:335-346.
Kannel WB, Wolf PA, McGee DL, et al. Systolic blood pressure, arterial rigidity and risk of stroke. The Framingham Study. JAMA. 1981;245;1225-1229.
SHEP Cooperative Research Group. Prevention of stroke by antihypertensive drug treatment in older persons with isolated systolic hypertension. Final results of the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP). JAMA 1991;265:3255-3264.
Zieman SJ, Melenovsky V, Kass DA. Mechanisms, pathophysiology. and therapy of arterial stiffness. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25:932-943.
Franklin SS. Hypertension in older people: Part I. J Clin Hypertens 2006;8:444-449.
Visse R, Nagase H. Matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases: structure, function and biochemistry. Circ Res 2003;92:827-839.
Rajagopalan S, Meng XP, Ramasamy S, Harrison DG, Galis ZS. Reactive oxygen species produced by macrophage-derived foam cells regulate the activity of vascular matrix metalloproteinases in vitro. Implications for atherosclerotic plaque stability. J Clin Invest 1996;98:2572-2579.
Galis Zs, Khatri JJ. Matrix metalloproteinases in vascular remodeling and atherogenesis: the good, the bad and the ugly. Circ Res. 2002;90:251-262.
Lakata EG. Arterial and cardiac aging: major shareholders in cardiovascular diseases enterprises: Part III: cellular and molecular clues to heart and arterial aging. Circulation 2003;107:490-497.
Bizbiz L, Alperovitch A, Robert L. Aging of the vascular wall: serum concentration of elastin peptides and elastase inhibitors in relation to cardiovascular risk factors. The EVA study. Atherosclerosis 1997;131:73-78.
Rojas A, Romay S, González D, Herrera B, Delgado R, Otero K. Regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression by albumin-derived advanced glycosylation end products. Cir Res 2000;39:249-254.
Taddei S, Virdis A, Ghiadoni L, Salvetti G, Bernini G, Magagna A, et al. Age-related reduction of NO availability and oxidative stress in humans. Hypertension 2001;38:274-279.
Dzau VJ. Significance of the vascular renin-angiotensin pathway. Hypertension 1986;8:553-559.
Park JB, Schiffrin EL. ET (A) receptor antagonist prevents blood pressure elevation and vascular remodeling in aldosterone-infused rats. Hypertension 2001;37:1444-1449.
Blacher J, Amah G, Girerd X, Kheder A, Ben Mais H, London GM, et al. Association between of increased plasma levels of aldosterone and decreased systemic arterial compliance in subjects with essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens 1997;10:1326-1334.
Safar ME, Thuilliez C, Richard V, Benetos A. Pressure-independent contribution of sodium to large artery structure and function in hypertension. Cardiovasc Res 2000;46:269-276.
Bagrov AY, Lakata EG. The dietary sodium-blood pressure plot “stiffens”. Hypertension 2004;44:22-24.
González-Pliego JA, León ZR. Conceptos actuales sobre la enfermedad hipertensiva sistémica en la senectud. Arch Inst Cardiol Mex 1990;60:99-108.
Messerli FH, Osler, S. Maneuver, pseudohypertension in the elderly. Am J Med 1986;80:906-910.
Kannel WB. Cardiovascular disease preventive measures for the older patient: an epidemiologic perspective. Am J Geriatr Cardiol 2006;15:382-388.
Staessen JA, Fagard R, Thies L, et al, for the Systolic Hypertension-Europe (Syst-Eur) Trial Investigators. Morbidity and mortality in the placebo controlled European Trial on Isolated Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly. Lancet 1997;360:757-764.
Gueyffier F, Bulpitt C, Boissel JP, Schron E, Ekbom T. Fagard R, et al. Antihypertensive drugs in very old people : a subgroup meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Lancet 1999;353:793-796.
Mulrow C, Lau J, Brand M. Pharmacotherapy for hypertension in the elderly. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.3, 2007
Liu L, Wang JL, Gong L, Liu G, Staessen JA. For the Syst-China Collaborative Group. Comparison of active treatment and placebo in older Chinese patients with isolated systolic hypertension. J Hypertens. 1998;16:1823-1829.
Franklin SS. Hypertension in older people: Part 2. J Clin Hypertens 2006;8:521-525.
Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo JL, et al. The seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 Report. JAMA 2003;289;2560-2572. (Erratum, JAMA 2003;290:197.)
World Health Organization/International Society of Hypertension Writing Group. 2003 World Health Organization (WHO) /International Society of Hypertension (ISH) Statement on Management of Hypertension. J Hypertens 2003;21:1983-1992.
Gates PE, Tanaka H, Hiatt WR, Seals DR. Dietary sodium restriction rapidly improves large elastic artery compliance in older adults with systolic hypertension. Hypertension 2004;44:35-41.
Appel LJ, Espeland MA, Easter L, Wilson AC, Folmar S, Lacy CR. Effects of reduced sodium intake on hypertension control in older individuals: results from the Trial of Nonpharmacologic Interventions in the Elderly (TONE). Arch Intern Med 2001;161:685-693.
Cook NR, Cutler J, Obarzanek E, Buring JE, Rexrode KM, Kumanyika SK, et al, for the Trials of Hypertension Prevention Collaborative Research Group. Long term effects of dietary sodium reduction on cardiovascular disease outcomes: observational follow-up of the trials of hypertension prevention (TOHP). BMJ, doi:10.1136/bmj.39147.604896.55 (published online 20 April 2007).
Miyachi M, Donato AJ, Yamamoto K, Takahashi K, Gates PE, Moreau KL, et al. Greater age-related reductions in central arterial compliance in resistance-trained men. Hypertension 2003;41:130-135.
Green DJ, Billsborough W, Naylos LN, Reed C, Wright J, O, Driscoll G, et al. Comparison of forearm blood flow responses to incremental handgrip at cycle ergometer exercise: relative contribution of nitric oxide. J. Physiol 2005;562:617-628.
Sierksma A, Muller M, van der Schouw YT, Grobbee DE, Hendriks HF, Bots ML. Algol consumption and arterial stiffness in men. J Hypertens 2004;22:357-362.
Beulens JW, Sierksma A, van Tol A, Fournier M, van Gent T, Paul JL, et al. Moderate alcohol consumption increases
cholesterol efflux mediated by ABCA 1. J Lipid Res 2004;45:1716-1723.
Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialists, Collaboration. Effects of different blood-pressure-lowering regimens on major cardiovascular events: results of prospectively-designed overviews of randomized trials. Lancet 2003;362:1527-1535.
Chobanian A. Isolated Systolic Hypertension. N Engl J Med 2007;357:789-796.
Somes GW, Pahor M, Shorr RI, Cushman WC, Applegate WB. The role of the diastolic blood pressure when treating isolated systolic hypertension. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:2004-2009.
Ravid M, Lang R, Rachmani R, Lishner M. Long-term renoprotective effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a 7-year follow-up study. Arch Intern Med 1996;156:286-289.
Hunt SA, Abraham WT, Chin MH, et al. ACC/AHA 2005 guideline update for the diagnosis and management of chronic heart failure in the adult. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Update the 2001 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure). Available at: www.guideline.gov Consulta: 18/09/2007.
Swedberg K, Cleland J, Dargie H, et al. Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic Heart Failure: Executive Summary (Update 2005). The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic Heart Failure of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J. 2005;26:1115-1140.
Gibbons RJ, Abrams J, Chatterjee K, et al. ACC/AHA guideline update for the management of patients with chronic stable angina – summary article: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on the Management of Patients with Chronic Stable Angina). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41:159-168.
Grimm RH, Flack JM, Grandits GA, et al, for the Treatment of Mild Hypertension Study (TOMHS) Research Group. Long-term effects on plasma lipids of diet and drugs to treat hypertension. JAMA. 1996;275:1549-1556.
Alderman MH, Cohen H, Roqué R, Madhavan S. Effect of long-acting and short acting calcium antagonists on cardiovascular outcomes in hypertensive patients. Lancet. 1997;349:594-598.
Vestal RE, Word AJ, Shand DG. Reduced beta adrenoceptor sensitivity in the elderly. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1979;29:181-186.
Monahan KD, Dinenno FA, Seals DR, Clevenger CM, Desouza CA, Tanaka H. Age-associated changes in cardiovagal baroreflex sensitivity are related to central arterial compliance. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2001;282:H284-H289.
Messerli FH, Ventura HO, Glade LB, Sundgaard-Riise K, Dunn FG, Frohlich ED. Essential hypertension in the elderly: haemodynamics, intravascular volume, plasma renin activity, and circulating catecholamine levels. Lancet 1983;2:983-986.
Lipsitz LA. Orthostatic hypotension in the elderly. N Engl J Med 1989;321:952-957.
Williams BR, Kim J. Cardiovascular drug therapy in the elderly:Theoretical and practical considerations. Drugs Aging 2003;20:445-463.
Friedman SA, Raizner AE, Rosen H, Solomon NA, Sy W. Functional defects in the aging kidney. Ann Intern Med 1972;76:41-45.
Zillich AJ, Garg J, Basu S, Bakris GL, Carter BL. Thiazide diuretics, potassium, and the development of diabetes: a quantitative review. Hypertension 2006;48:219-224.
Elliot WJ, Meyer PM. Incident diabetes in clinical trials of antihypertensive drugs: a network meta-analysis. Lancet 2007;369:201-207 (Erratum, Lancet 2007;369:1518.)
Messerli FH, Grossman E, Goldbourt U. Are ²-blockers efficacious as first-line therapy for hypertension in the elderly? A systematic review. JAMA 1998;279:1903-1907.
Bangalore S, Messerli FH, Kostis JB, Pepine CJ. Cardiovascular protection using beta-blockers. A critical review of the evidence. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007;50:563-572.
Williams B, Lacy PS, Thom SM, et al. Differential impact of blood pressure-lowering drugs on central aortic pressure and clinical outcomes: principal results of the Conduit Artery Function Evaluation (CAFE) study. Circulation 2006;113:1213-1225.
Dart AM, Cameron JD, Gatzka CD, et al. Similar effects of treatment on central and brachial blood pressures in older hypertensive subjects in the Second Australian National Blood Pressure Trial. Hypertension 2007;49:1242-1247.
Bangalore S, Parkar S, Grossman E, Messerli FH. A meta-analysis of 94,492 patients with hypertension treated with ²-blockers to determine the risk of new onset diabetes mellitus. Am J Card (published online 10 August 2007).
Adherence to long-terms therapies – Evidence for action, World Health Organization 2003
Rosas, RENAHAS, Arch Cardio Mex 2005;75:96-111.
Apple LJ, Champagne CM, Hansha DW, Cooper LS, Obarzanek E, Elmer PJ, el al. Effects of comprehensive lifestyle modification on blood pressure control: main results of the PREMIER clinical trial. Writing Group of the PREMIER Collaborative Research Group. JAMA 2003;289:2083-2093.
Barrier PA, Li JT, Jensen NM. Two words to improve physician-patient communication: what else? Mayo Clin Proc 2003;78:211-214.
Betancourt JR, Carrillo JE, Green AR. Hypertension in multicultural and minority populations. Curr Hypertens Rep 1999;1:482-488.
Boulware LE, Daumit GL, Frick KD, et al. An evidence-based review of patient-centered behavioral interventions for hypertension. Am J Prev Med 2001;21:221-232.
Phillips LS, Branch WT, Cook CB, et al. Clinical inertia. Ann Intern Med 2001;135:825-834.
Laurence DR, Bennett PN. Clinical Pharmacology. Seventh edition, Churchill Livingstone 1992, pp. 24–26.
Psaty BM, Koepsell TD, Wagner ED, Logerefo JP. The relative risk of incident coronary heart disease associated with recently stopping the use of beta–blockers. JAMA 1990;263:1653–1657.
Rudd P. Partial compliance: implications for clinical practice. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1993 22(suppl A):S1–S5.
Alexander. Desirable therapeutic characteristics of an optimal antihypertensive agent. Drugs 2006;66:1239-1252.
Struijker-Boudier. The need for combination antihypertensive therapy to reach target blood pressures, Int J Clin Pract 2007;61:1592-1602.
Bangalore. Fixed dose combinations improve medication compliance meta analysis. Am J Med 2007;120;713-719.
Meredith PA, Perloff D, Mancia G, Pickering T. Blood pressure variability and its implications for antihypertensive therapy. Blood Pressure. 1995;4:5–11.
Muller JE, Stone PH, Turi AG. Circadian variation in the frequency of onset of acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1985;313:1315–1322.
Hill MN, Miller NH. Compliance enhancement: a call for multidisciplinary team approaches. Circulation 1996;93:4-6.
Oparil Suzanne, Zaman Amin et al. Pathogenesis of Hypertension. Ann Intern Med 2003;139:761-776.
Kannel WB. Hypertension and the risk of cardiovascular disease. In: JH Laragh, BM Brenner. Hypertension: Pathophysiology Diagnosis, and Management. New York, Raven Press 1990:101-117.
MacMahon S, Peto R, Cutler J. et al. Blood pressure, Stroke and coronary heart disease. Part I. Prolonged differences in blood pressure: prospective observational studies corrected for the regression dilution bias. Lancet 1990;335:765-774.
Chávez DR. La hipertensión arterial y el procedimiento en las encuestas. Estudios de población encauzados al control del padecimiento. Arch Inst Cardiol Méx 1986;56:453-458.
García de Alba JE, Morán GR, Cárdenas RC, Ruiz MP. La hipertensión arterial como problema de salud pública. Sal Púb Méx 1977;5:365-373.
Frohlich DE. Beta-adrenergic blockade in circulatory regulation of hyperkinetic states. Clin J Cardiol 1977;27:195-199.
Ferrario CM, Schiavone MT. The renin-angiotensin system: Importance in physiology and pathology. Cleveland J Med 1989;56:439-446.
Carretero OA, Scicl G. Local hormonal factors (intracrine, autocrine and paracrine) in hypertension. Hypertension. 1991(suppl 1) 18:S158-S165.
Guyton AC. Physiologic regulation of arterial pressure. Am J Cardiol 1961;8:401-407.
Brenner BM, García DL, Anderson S. Glomeruli and blood presure. Less of one, more the other? Am J Hypertens 1988;1:335-347.
Moller DE, Flier JS. Insulin resistance: mechanisms, syndromes and implications. N Engl J Med 1991;325:938-948.
Vanhoutte PM, How to assess endothelial function in human blood vessels. J Hypertension 1999;17:1047-1058.
John S, Schmieder RE. Impaired endothelial function in arterial hypertension and hypercholesterolemia: potential mechanisms and differences. J Hypertension 2000;18:363-374.
Alcocer L. Posibilidades patogénicas del daño hipertensivo. En: Hipertensión Arterial Sistémica, Sánchez Torres G (ed). Sociedad Mexicana de Cardiología 1993, México.
Reaten MG, Lthelli H, Lansberg L. Hypertension and associated metabolic abnormalities-the role of insulin resistance and the sympathoadrenal system. N Engl J Med 1998;334:374-381.
Hansson L, Zanchetti A, Carruthers SG, Dahlof B, Elmfeld D, Julios S, et al, for the HOT Study Group. Effects of intensive blood pressure lowering and low-dose aspirin in patients with hypertension: Principal results of the Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) randomized trial. Lancet 1998;351:1755-1762.
Lazarus JM, Bourgoignie JJ, Buckalew VM, et al, for the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. Achievement and safety of a low blood pressure goal in chronic renal disease: the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. Hypertension 1997;29:641-650.
World Health Organization. The World Health Report 2002: Risk to Health 2002 Geneva: World Health Organization.
Brown MJ, Crickshank AF, MacGregor GA, Poulter NR, Russell GI, et al. Executive Committee, British Hypertension Society. Better Blood pressure control: how to combine drugs. J Hum Hypertens 2003;17:81-86, actualizado en junio de 2006 from NICE Clinical Guidelines (http//www.nice.org.uk/CG034guidance).
The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. Effects of an Angiotensin-Converting-Enzyme Inhibitor, Ramipril, on Death from Cardiovascular Causes, Myocardial infarction, and Stroke in High-Risk Patients. N Engl J Med 2000;342:145-153.
Lindholm LH, Ibsen H, Borch-Johnsen K. Risk of new-onset diabetes in the Losartan Intervention for Endpoint reduction in hypertension study. J Hypertens 2002;20:1879-1886.
Hansson L, Lindholm LH, Niskanen L, et al, for the Captopril Prevention Project (CAPPP) study group. Effect of angiotensin- converting-enzyme inhibition compared with conventional therapy on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in hypertension: the Captopril Prevention Project (CAPPP) randomized trial. Lancet 1999;353:611-616.
Wright JT Jr, Agodoa L, Contreras G. Successful blood pressure control in the african-american Study of Kidney Disease and Hypertension. Arch Intern Med 2002;162:1636-1642.
Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Clarke WR, et al. Renoprotective effect of the angiotensin-receptor antagonist irbesartan in patients with nephropathy due to Type-2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2001;345:851-860.
Brenner BM, Cooper ME. From the REENAL Study Investigators. Effects of losartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type-2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2001;345:861-869.
Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (HOPE) Study Investigators. Effects of ramipril on cardiovascular and microvascular outcomes in people with diabetes mellitus: results of the HOPE study and MICROHOPE substudy. Lancet 2000;355:253-259.
Zanchetti A, Ruilope LM. Antihypertensive treatment in patients with Type-2 diabetes mellitus: what guidance from recent controlled randomized trials? J Hypertens 2002;20:2099-2110.
The SOLVD Investigators. Effect of enalapril on survival in patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fractions and congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med 1991;325:293-302.
Flather MD, Yusuf S, Kober L, Pffefer M. Long termn ACE-inhibitors therapy in patients with heart failure or left ventricular dysfunction. A systematic overview of data for individual patients. ACE-Inhibitor Myocardial Infarction Collaborative Group. Lancet 2000;355:1575-1581.
Pitt B, Poole-Wilson PA, Segal R. Effect of losartan compared with captopril on mortality in patients with symptomatic heart failure: randomized trial-the Losartan Heart Failure Survival Study ELITE II. Lancet. 2000;355:1582-1587.
Gottdiener JS, Reda DJ, Massie BM, Matterson BJ, for the Cooperative Study Group on Antihypertensive Agents. Effect of single-drug therapy on reduction of left ventricular mass in mild to moderate hypertension: comparison of six antihypertensive agents. Circulation 1997;95:2007-2014.
Debereux RV, Palmieri V, Sharpe N. Effects of once-daily angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition and calcium channel blockade-based antihypertensive treatment regimens on left ventricular hypertrophy and diastolic filling in hypertension. The Prospective Randomized Enalapril Study Evaluating Regression of Ventricular Enlargement (PRESERVE) trial. Circulation 2001;104:1248-1254.
Cuspide C, Muiesan ML, Valagussa L, on behalf of the CATCH investigators.. Comparative effects of candesartan and enalapril on left ventricular hypertrophy in patients with essential hypertension: the Candesartan Assessment in the Treatment of Cardiac Hypertrophy (CATCH study). J Hypertens 2002;20:2293-2300.
Dahlöf B, Zanchetti A, Diez J, Nicholls MG. Effects of Losartan and Atenolol on left ventricular mass and neurohormonal profile and patients with essential hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy. J Hypertens. 2002;20:1855-1864.
Lindholm LH, Ibsen H, Dahlöf B, Debereux RV. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in patients with diabetes in the Losartan Intervention for endpoint reduction in hypertension study (LIFE). A randomized trial against Atenolol. Lancet 2002;359:1004-1010.
Cardona-Muñoz E, Carranza-Madrigal J, Hernández-Hernñandez H. Tratamiento de la Hipertensión Arterial. II Consenso Nacional de Hipertensión Arterial. Rev Mex Cardiolología 2001;12:25-33.
Epstein. Dihydropyridine calcium channel antagonist in the management of hypertension. Drugs 2007;67:1309-1327.
Goodman and Gillman, The Pharmacological basis of therapeutics, 11 ed, on line.
The Task Force for the Management of Arterial Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). 2007 Guidelines for the management of arterial Hypertension. J Hypertens 2007;25:1105-1187.
Poldermans. Tolerability and blood pressure lowering efficacy of the combination of Amlo plus valsa compared with lisino-HCTZ. Clin Ther 2007;29: 279-289.
Smith. Amlo and Valsa combined and as mono is stage 2, elderly, and black hypertensive patients. J Clin Hypertens 2007;9:355-364.
Philip. Efficacy and tolerability of Amlo and Valsa in combination and as mono in adult with mild to moderate HTN. Clin Ther 2007;29:563-580.
Cheung. Therapeutic potential of angiotensin receptor blockers in hypertension, Exp Opin 2006;15: 625-635.
Basile. The importance of early antihypertensive efficacy: The role of angiotensin II receptor blocker therapy. J Hum Hypertens 2006;20:169-175.
Kjeldsen. Hypertension mega-trial with cardiovascular end points: Effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers.
Frampton. Aliskiren, A review of its use in the management of hypertension. Drugs 2007;67:1767-1792.
Gallagher. Diuretics: A modern day treatment option?, Nephrology 2006;11:419-427.
Kaplan. Diuretics as a basis of antihypertensive therapy. Drugs 2006; 59 suppl 2: S21-S25.
Ong. ²-blockers in hypertension and cardiovascular disease. BMJ 2007;334:946-949.
Sowers JR, Epstein M, Frolich ED. Diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease: an update. Hypertension 2001;37:1053.
Beckman JA, Crenger MA, Lobby P. Diabetes and atherosclerosis: epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management. JAMA 2002;287:2570.
Hypertension in Diabetes Study (HDS) I. Prevalence of hypertension in newly presenting type 2 diabetic patients and t. J Hypertens 1993;11:309.
Sowers JR, Epstein M. Diabetes mellitus and associated hypertension, vascular disease, and nephropathy. Hypertension 1995; 26 (Part 1): 869-879.
Fuller JH, Head J. Blood pressure, proteinuria, and the relationship with circulatory mortality: The WHO Multinational Study of vascular disease in diabetics. Diabetes & Metab 1989;15:273.
Nielsen S, Schmitz A, Rehling M, Mogensen CE. Systolic blood pressure relates to the rate of decline of glomerular filtration rate in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 1993;16:1427.
Tarnow L, Rossing P, Gall MA, Mielsen F, Parving HH. Prevalence of arterial hypertension in diabetic patients before and after the JNC V. Diabetes Care 1994;17:1247.
Velázquez Monroy O, Rosas Peralta M, Lara Esqueda A, Pastelín Hernández G, Grupo ENSA 2000, Attie F, et al. Hipertensión arterial en México: Resultados de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud (ENSA) 2000. Arch Cardiol Mex 2002;72:71-84.
UKPDS group: UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Tight blood pressure control and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes. UKPDS 38. BMJ 1998;317:703-713.
Whelton PK, He J, Appel LJ, Cutler JA, Havas S, Kotchen TA, Roccela EJ, Scout R, Vallbona C, Winston MC, Karimbakas J. The National Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee: Primary prevention of Hypertension: clinical and public health advisory from the National High Blood Pressure Education Program. JAMA 2002;188:1882.
Schrier RW, Estacio RO, Ester A, Mehler P. Effects of aggressive blood pressure control in normotensive type 2 diabetic patients on albuminuria, retinopathy and stroke. Kidney Int 2002;61:1086.
The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. NEJM 2000;342:145.
The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. The JNC 7 Report. JAMA 2003;289:2560- 2572.
Atkins RC, Briganti EM, Lewis JB, Hunsicker LG, Braden G, Champion de Crespigny PJ, et al. Proteinuria reduction and progression to renal failure in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and overt nephropathy. Am J Kidney Dis 2005;45:281-287.
Mancia G, Grassi G. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure control in antihypertensive drug trials. J Hypertens 2002;29:1461.
Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialists Collaboration. Effects of different blood pressure-lowering regimens on major cardiovascular events in individuals with and without diabetes mellitus. Results of prospectively designed overviews of randomized trials. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:1410.
Whelton PK, Barzilay J, Cushman WC, Davis BR, Iliamathi E, Dostis JB, Llenen FH, Lous GT, Margolis KL, Mathis DE, Moloo J, Nwachuku C, Parebianco D., Parish DC, Pressel S, Simmons DL, Thadani U. ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group: Clinical outcomes in antihypertensive treatment of type 2 diabetes, impaired fasting glucose concentration, and normoglycemia: Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:1401.
Goldstein S. Beta-blockers in hypertensive and coronary Heart disease. Arch Intern Med 1996;156:1267.
Nathan S, Pepine CJ, Bakris GL. Calcium antagonists: effects on cardiorenal risk in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 2005;46:637.
Ruggenenti P, Farsi A, Ilieva AP, Bruno S, Iliev IP, Brusegan V, Rubis N, Gherardi G, Arnoldo F, Ganeva M, Ehe- Iordache B, Gaspari F, Perna A, Bossi A, Trevisan R, Dodesini AR, Remuzzi G. Bergamo Nephrologic Diabetes Complications Trial (BENEDICT) Investigator: Preventing microalbuminuria in type 2 diabetes. N England J Med 2004;351:1941.
Barnett AH, Bain SC, Bouter P, Karlberg B, Madsbad S, Jervell J, Mustonen J. Diabetics Exponed to Telmisartan and Enalapril Study Group: Angiotensin-receptor blockade versus converting-enzyme inhibition in type 2 diabetes an nephropathy. N England J Med 2004;351:1952.
National Kidney Foundation: Guideline 8: Pharmacological therapy: diabetic kidney disease. Am J kidney Dis 2004;43 (Suppl 1): S142.
Andersen NH, Poulsen PL, Knudsen ST, Poulsen SH, Eiskjaer H, Hansen KW, et al. Long-term dual blockade with candesartan and lisinopril in hypertensive patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care 2005;28:273.
Jandeleit K, Cooper M. Hypertension and Diabetes: Role of Renin-Angiotensin System. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am 2006;35:469-490.
McFarlane S, Kumar A, Sowers J. Mechanism by which Angiotensin Converting Enzime Inhibitors Prevent Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease. Am J Cardiol 2003;91 (suppl) 30H-37H.
Mohamed Q, Gilies M, Wong T. Management of Diabetic Retinopathy. JAMA 2007;298:902-916.
Cordero A, Moreno J, Alegría E. Hipertensión arterial y síndrome metabólico. Rev Esp Cardiol 2005;58 Supl 5.38D-45D.
Rubio AF. Fisiopatología. En: Rubio AF. Hipertensión Arterial, El Manual Moderno. 2005. México. pp: 9-24.
Petersen KF, Shulman GI. Etiology of insulin resistance. Am J Med 2006;119:10S-15S.
Madamanchi NR, Vendrov A, Runge MS. Oxidative Stress and vascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005;25:29-38.
Opie LH. Metabolic syndrome. Circulation 2007;115:e32- e35.
Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Daniels SR, et al. Diagnosis and management of the metabolic syndrome. An American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute of Health Scientific Statement. Circulation. 2005;112:e285-e291.
Rubio AF. Evaluación del paciente hipertenso. En: Rubio AF. Hipertensión Arterial, El Manual Moderno 2005. México. pp 41-48.
Dahlöf B, Sever PS, Poulter NR, et al. Prevention of cardiovascular events with an antihypertensive regimen of amlodipine adding perindopril as required versus atenolol adding bendoflumethiazide as required in the ASCOT trial. Lancet 2005;366:895-906.
Pepine CJ, Handberg EM, Cooper DM, et al. A Calcium antagonist vs. a non calcium antagonist hypertension treatment strategy for patients with coronary artery disease: The International Verapamil Trandolapril Study (INVEST) a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2003;290:2805-2816.
Rubio AF, Lozano JJ, Vargas G, Rodríguez L, Ramos LM, Escalante B. Efficacy of a fixed-dose combination of trandolapril- verapamil in obese hypertensive patients resistant to monotherapy. Clin and Experiment Hypertens 2006;28:619-624.
Bakris GL, Molitch M, Hewkin A, et al. Differences in glucose tolerance between fixed-dose antihypertensive drug combinations in people with metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care 2006; 29:2592-2597.
Bakris GL, Molitch M, Sowers J, et al. Reversal of new onset diabetes by nondiuretic based fixed-dose antihypertensive drug combinations? Results of STAR 6-month extension (STAR-LET). J Clin Hypertens. 2007;9:A190-A191.
Wenzel RR. Renal Protection in Hypertensive Patients: Selection of antihypertensive therapy. Drugs 2005; 65(suppl 2):29-39.
Joles JA, Koomans HA. Causes and consequences of increased sympathetic activity in renal disease. Hypertension 2004;44:595-601.
Bidani AK, Griffin KA. Pathophysiology of hypertensive renal damage: implications for therapy. Hypertension 2004;44:595-601.
Levey AS, Greene T, Beck GJ, Caggiula AW, Kusek JW, Hunsicker LG, Klahr S. Dietary protein restriction and the progression of chronic renal disease: what have all of the results of the MDRD study shown? Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study group. J Am Soc Nephrol 1999;10:2426–2439.
Bakris GL, Williams L, Dworkin L, et al. for the National Kidney Foundation Hypertension and Diabetes Executive Committees Working Group. Preserving Renal Function in Adults with Hypertension and Diabetes: A Consensus Approach. Am J Kid Dis 2000;36:646-661.
The EUCLID study group. Randomized placebo-controlled trial of lisinopril in normotensive patients with insulin-dependent diabetes and normoalbuminuria or microalbuminuria. Lancet 1997;349:1787-1792.
Fogari R, Derosa G, Zoppi A, et al. Effect of telmisartanamlodipine combination at different doses on urinary albumin excretion in hypertensive diabetic patients with microalbuminuria. AJH 2007;20:417-422.
Parving HH, Lehnert H, Bröchner-Mortensen J, Gomis R, Andersen S, Arner P, for the Irbesartan in patients with type-2 diabetes and microalbuminuria study group. The effect of irbesartan on the development of diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2001;345:870-878.
Nakao N, Yoshimura A, Morita H, Takada M, Kayano T, Ideura T. Combination treatment of angiotensin-II receptor blocker and angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor in non-diabetic renal disease (COOPERATE): a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 2003;361:117–124.
MacKinnon M, Shurraw S, Akbari A, Knoll GA, Jaffey J, Clark HD. Combination therapy with an angiotensin receptor blocker and an ACE inhibitor in proteinuric renal disease: a systematic review of the efficacy and safety data. Am J Kidney Dis 2006;48:8–20.
Rossing K, Schjoedt KJ, Jensen BR, Boomsma F, Parving HH. Enhanced renoprotective effects of ultrahigh doses of irbesartan in patients with type 2 diabetes and microalbuminuria. Kidney Int 2005;68:1190–1198.
Schmieder RE, Klingbeil AU, Fleischmann EH, Veelken R, Delles C. Additional antiproteinuric effect of ultrahigh dose candesartan: a doubleblind, randomized, prospective study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:3038–3045.
The Captopril Prevention Project (CAPP) Study Group Effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition compared with conventional therapy on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in hypertension: the Captopril Prevention Project (CAPP) randomized trial. Curr Hypertens Rep 1999;1:466-467.
The HOPE study investigators The HOPE (Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation) Study: the design of a large, simple randomized trial of an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ramipril) and vitamin E in patients at high risk of cardiovascular events. Can J Cardiol 1996;12:127-137.
Norris K, Bourgoigne J, Gassman J. Cardiovascular outcomes in the African American Study of Kidney Disease and Hypertension (AASK) Trial. Am J Kidney Dis 2006;48:739-751.
Ruggeneti, P, Fassi A, Ilieva AP, et al. Preventing microalbuminuria in type 2 diabetes. NEJM 2004;351:1941- 1951.
Viberti G, Wheeldon NM. MicroAlbuminuria Reduction With VALsartan (MARVAL) Study Investigators. Microalbuminuria reduction with valsartan in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a blood pressure-independent effect. Circulation 2002;106:672-678.
Berl T, Hunsicker LG, Lewis JB. Impact of achieved blood pressure on cardiovascular outcomes in the Irbesartan Diabetic Nephropathy Trial. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:2170-2179.
Abbott K, Basta E, Barkis GL. Blood pressure control and nephroprotection in diabetes. J Clin Pharmacol 2004;44:431-438.
Susic D, Frohlich ED. Nephroprotective effect of antihypertensive drugs in essential hypertension. J Hypertens 1998;16:555-567.
Smith AC, Toto R, Bakris GL. Differential effects of calcium channel blockers on size selectivity of proteinuria in diabetic glomerulopathy. Kidney Int 1998;54:889-896.
Bakris GL, Copley JB, Vicknair N, et al. Calcium channel blockers versus other antihypertensive therapies on progression of NIDDM associated nephropathy. Kidney Int 1996;50:1641-1650.
Bakris GL, Weir MR, DeQuattro V, et al. Effects of an ACE inhibitor/calcium antagonist combination on proteinuria in diabetic nephropathy. Kidney Int 1998;54:1283-1289.
The ALLHAT Officers and Coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. Major outcomes in highrisk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker vs diuretic: The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering treatment to prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). JAMA 2002;288:2981–2997.
O’Gara and Suzanne Oparil Gore, Izzo JL Jr, Kaplan NM, O’Connor CM, Rosendorff PC, Black HR, et al. Treatment of Hypertension in the Prevention and Management of Ischemic Heart Disease Cardiology and Epidemiology and Prevention Council for High Blood Pressure Research and the Councils on Clinical Cardiology and Epidemiology and Prevention: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation 2007;115;2761-2788.
First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2). Arch Intern Med 2001;161:996-1002.
Moser M, Hebert PR. Prevention of disease progression, left ventricular hypertrophy and congestive heart failure in hypertension treatment trials. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996;27:1214-1218.
Kalantar-Zadeh K, Block G, Horwich T, Fonarow GC. Reverse epidemiology of conventional cardiovascular risk factors in patients with chronic heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004;43:1439-1444.
Yui Y, Sumiyoshi T, Kodama K, et al. Nifedipine retard was as effective as angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors in preventing cardiac events in high-risk hypertensive patients with diabetes and coronary artery diseaze: the Japan Multicenter Investigation for Cardiovascular Diseases- B (JMIC-B) subgroup analysis. Hypertension Research–Clinical & Experimental 2004;27:449–456.
Hansson L, Lindholm LH, Ekbom T, et al STOP-H2. Randomized trial of old and new antihypertensive drugs in elderly patients: cardiovascular mortality and morbidity the Swedish Trial in Old Patients with Hypertension-2 study. Lancet 1999;354:1751–1756.
Lubsen J, Chadha DR, Yotof YT, Swedberg K. Meta-analysis of morbidity and mortality in five exercise capacity trials evaluating ramipril in chronic congestive cardiac failure. Am J Cardiol 1996;77:1191–1196.
McMurray, et al. Candesartan in Heart failure: Assessment of Reduction in Mortality and morbidity. Lancet 2003;362:767-771.
Faris R, Flather M, Purcell H, Henein M, Poole-Wilson P, Coats A. Current evidence supporting the role of diuretics in heart failure: a meta analysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Cardiol 2002;82:149–158.
Packer M, Bristow MR, Cohn JN, et al for the US Carvedilol Heart Failure Study Group. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1349.
Cleland JG, McGowan J, Clark A, Freemantle N. BMJ. 1999; 318:824.
The MERIT-HF Study Group. Lancet 1999;353:2001.
Bonet S, Agusti A, Arnau JM, Vidal X, Diogene E, Galve E, et al. Beta-adrenergic blocking agents in heart failure: benefits of vasodilating and non-vasodilating agents according to patients’ characteristics: a meta-analysis of clinical trials. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:621–627.
Pitt B, Zannad F, Remme WJ, Cody R, Castaigne A, Perez A, et al. The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe heart failure. Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study Investigators. New Engl J Med 1999;341:709–717.
Spertus JA, Tooley J, Jones P, Poston C, Mahoney E, Deedwania P, et al. Expanding the outcomes in clinical trials of heart failure: the quality of life and economic components of EPHESUS (EPlerenone’s neuroHormonal Efficacy and SUrvival Study). Am Heart J 2002;143:636–642.
Packer M, O’Connor C, Ghali J, Pressler M, Carson P, et al. Effect of amlodipine on morbidity and mortality in severe chronic heart failure. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1107- 1114.
World Hypertension League. Treatment targets. Systolic or diastolic pressure? Weinberger MH. Available at: http://www.worldhypertensionleague. org/pages/professionals. Consulta; 01/09/2007
Kannel WB, Cupples LA. How useful is diastolic blood pressure? Insights from the Framingham Study. J Am Coll Cardiol 1987;9:114A.
Alli C, Avanzini F, Bettelli G, et al. The long-term prognostic significance of repeated blood pressure measurements in the elderly: SPAA (Studio Sulla Pressione Arteriosa nell, Anziano) 10-year follow-up. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:1205-1212.
Wilking SV, Belanger A, Kannel WB, D, Agostino RB, Steel K. Determinants of isolated systolic hypertension. JAMA. 1988;260:3451-3455.
Elliot WJ. Which blood pressure measurement is more important in the elderly? Arch Intern Med 1999;159:1165-1166.
O, Rourke MF, Hayward ChS, Lehmann ED. Arterial stifness. In Oparil S, Weber MA (eds.) Hypertension: A companion to Brenner and Rector, s The Kidney. Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders Company 2000; pp. 134-151.
Franklin SS, Gustin W IV, Wong ND, et al. Hemodynamic patterns of age-related change in blood pressure: The Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 1997;96:308-315.
Kannel WB, Gordon T, Schwartz MJ. Systolic versus diastolic blood pressure and risk of coronary heart disease: The Framingham Study. Am J Cardiol 1971;27:335-346.
Kannel WB, Wolf PA, McGee DL, et al. Systolic blood pressure, arterial rigidity and risk of stroke. The Framingham Study. JAMA. 1981;245;1225-1229.
SHEP Cooperative Research Group. Prevention of stroke by antihypertensive drug treatment in older persons with isolated systolic hypertension. Final results of the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP). JAMA 1991;265:3255-3264.
Zieman SJ, Melenovsky V, Kass DA. Mechanisms, pathophysiology. and therapy of arterial stiffness. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25:932-943.
Franklin SS. Hypertension in older people: Part I. J Clin Hypertens 2006;8:444-449.
Visse R, Nagase H. Matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases: structure, function and biochemistry. Circ Res 2003;92:827-839.
Rajagopalan S, Meng XP, Ramasamy S, Harrison DG, Galis ZS. Reactive oxygen species produced by macrophagederived foam cells regulate the activity of vascular matrix metalloproteinases in vitro. Implications for atherosclerotic plaque stability. J Clin Invest 1996;98:2572-2579.
Galis Zs, Khatri JJ. Matrix metalloproteinases in vascular remodeling and atherogenesis: the good, the bad and the ugly. Circ Res. 2002;90:251-262.
Lakata EG. Arterial and cardiac aging: major shareholders in cardiovascular diseases enterprises: Part III: cellular and molecular clues to heart and arterial aging. Circulation 2003;107:490-497.
Bizbiz L, Alperovitch A, Robert L. Aging of the vascular wall: serum concentration of elastin peptides and elastase inhibitors in relation to cardiovascular risk factors. The EVA study. Atherosclerosis 1997;131:73-78.
Rojas A, Romay S, González D, Herrera B, Delgado R, Otero K. Regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression by albumin-derived advanced glycosylation end products. Cir Res 2000;39:249-254.
Taddei S, Virdis A, Ghiadoni L, Salvetti G, Bernini G, Magagna A, et al. Age-related reduction of NO availability and oxidative stress in humans. Hypertension 2001;38:274-279.
Dzau VJ. Significance of the vascular renin-angiotensin pathway. Hypertension 1986;8:553-559.
Park JB, Schiffrin EL. ET (A) receptor antagonist prevents blood pressure elevation and vascular remodeling in aldosterone-infused rats. Hypertension 2001;37:1444-1449.
Blacher J, Amah G, Girerd X, Kheder A, Ben Mais H, London GM, et al. Association between of increased plasma levels of aldosterone and decreased systemic arterial compliance in subjects with essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens 1997;10:1326-1334.
Safar ME, Thuilliez C, Richard V, Benetos A. Pressure-independent contribution of sodium to large artery structure and function in hypertension. Cardiovasc Res 2000;46:269-276.
Bagrov AY, Lakata EG. The dietary sodium-blood pressure plot “stiffens”. Hypertension 2004;44:22-24.
González-Pliego JA, León ZR. Conceptos actuales sobre la enfermedad hipertensiva sistémica en la senectud. Arch Inst Cardiol Mex 1990;60:99-108.
Messerli FH, Osler, S. Maneuver, pseudohypertension in the elderly. Am J Med 1986;80:906-910.
Kannel WB. Cardiovascular disease preventive measures for the older patient: an epidemiologic perspective. Am J Geriatr Cardiol 2006;15:382-388.
Staessen JA, Fagard R, Thies L, et al, for the Systolic Hypertension- Europe (Syst-Eur) Trial Investigators. Morbidity and mortality in the placebo controlled European Trial on Isolated Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly. Lancet 1997;360:757-764.
Gueyffier F, Bulpitt C, Boissel JP, Schron E, Ekbom T. Fagard R, et al. Antihypertensive drugs in very old people: a subgroup meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Lancet 1999;353:793-796.
Mulrow C, Lau J, Brand M. Pharmacotherapy for hypertension in the elderly. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.3, 2007
Liu L, Wang JL, Gong L, Liu G, Staessen JA. For the Syst-China Collaborative Group. Comparison of active treatment and placebo in older Chinese patients with isolated systolic hypertension. J Hypertens. 1998;16:1823-1829.
Franklin SS. Hypertension in older people: Part 2. J Clin Hypertens 2006;8:521-525.
Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo JL, et al. The seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 Report. JAMA 2003;289;2560-2572. (Erratum, JAMA 2003;290:197.)
World Health Organization/International Society of Hypertension Writing Group. 2003 World Health Organization (WHO)/International Society of Hypertension (ISH) Statement on Management of Hypertension. J Hypertens 2003;21:1983-1992.
Gates PE, Tanaka H, Hiatt WR, Seals DR. Dietary sodium restriction rapidly improves large elastic artery compliance in older adults with systolic hypertension. Hypertension 2004;44:35-41.
Appel LJ, Espeland MA, Easter L, Wilson AC, Folmar S, Lacy CR. Effects of reduced sodium intake on hypertension control in older individuals: results from the Trial of Nonpharmacologic Interventions in the Elderly (TONE). Arch Intern Med 2001;161:685-693.
Cook NR, Cutler J, Obarzanek E, Buring JE, Rexrode KM, Kumanyika SK, et al, for the Trials of Hypertension Prevention Collaborative Research Group. Long term effects of dietary sodium reduction on cardiovascular disease outcomes: observational follow-up of the trials of hypertension prevention (TOHP). BMJ, doi:10.1136/bmj.39147.604896.55 (published online 20 April 2007).
Miyachi M, Donato AJ, Yamamoto K, Takahashi K, Gates PE, Moreau KL, et al. Greater age-related reductions in central arterial compliance in resistance-trained men. Hypertension 2003;41:130-135.
Green DJ, Billsborough W, Naylos LN, Reed C, Wright J, O, Driscoll G, et al. Comparison of forearm blood flow responses to incremental handgrip at cycle ergometer exercise: relative contribution of nitric oxide. J. Physiol 2005;562:617-628.
Sierksma A, Muller M, van der Schouw YT, Grobbee DE, Hendriks HF, Bots ML. Algol consumption and arterial stiffness in men. J Hypertens 2004;22:357-362.
Beulens JW, Sierksma A, van Tol A, Fournier M, van Gent T, Paul JL, et al. Moderate alcohol consumption increases cholesterol efflux mediated by ABCA 1. J Lipid Res 2004;45:1716-1723.
Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialists, Collaboration. Effects of different blood-pressure-lowering regimens on major cardiovascular events: results of prospectively-designed overviews of randomized trials. Lancet 2003;362:1527-1535.
Chobanian A. Isolated Systolic Hypertension. N Engl J Med 2007;357:789-796.
Somes GW, Pahor M, Shorr RI, Cushman WC, Applegate WB. The role of the diastolic blood pressure when treating isolated systolic hypertension. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:2004-2009.
Ravid M, Lang R, Rachmani R, Lishner M. Long-term renoprotective effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a 7- year follow-up study. Arch Intern Med 1996;156:286-289.
Hunt SA, Abraham WT, Chin MH, et al. ACC/AHA 2005 guideline update for the diagnosis and management of chronic heart failure in the adult. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Update the 2001 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure). Available at: www.guideline.gov Consulta: 18/09/2007.
Swedberg K, Cleland J, Dargie H, et al. Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic Heart Failure: Executive Summary (Update 2005). The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic Heart Failure of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J. 2005;26:1115-1140.
Gibbons RJ, Abrams J, Chatterjee K, et al. ACC/AHA guideline update for the management of patients with chronic stable angina–summary article: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on the Management of Patients with Chronic Stable Angina). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41:159-168.
Grimm RH, Flack JM, Grandits GA, et al, for the Treatment of Mild Hypertension Study (TOMHS) Research Group. Long-term effects on plasma lipids of diet and drugs to treat hypertension. JAMA. 1996;275:1549-1556.
Alderman MH, Cohen H, Roqué R, Madhavan S. Effect of long-acting and short acting calcium antagonists on cardiovascular outcomes in hypertensive patients. Lancet. 1997;349:594-598.
Vestal RE, Word AJ, Shand DG. Reduced beta adrenoceptor sensitivity in the elderly. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1979;29:181-186.
Monahan KD, Dinenno FA, Seals DR, Clevenger CM, Desouza CA, Tanaka H. Age-associated changes in cardiovagal baroreflex sensitivity are related to central arterial compliance. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2001;282:H284-H289.
Messerli FH, Ventura HO, Glade LB, Sundgaard-Riise K, Dunn FG, Frohlich ED. Essential hypertension in the elderly: haemodynamics, intravascular volume, plasma renin activity, and circulating catecholamine levels. Lancet 1983;2:983-986.
Lipsitz LA. Orthostatic hypotension in the elderly. N Engl J Med 1989;321:952-957.
Williams BR, Kim J. Cardiovascular drug therapy in the elderly: Theoretical and practical considerations. Drugs Aging 2003;20:445-463.
Friedman SA, Raizner AE, Rosen H, Solomon NA, Sy W. Functional defects in the aging kidney. Ann Intern Med 1972;76:41-45.
Zillich AJ, Garg J, Basu S, Bakris GL, Carter BL. Thiazide diuretics, potassium, and the development of diabetes: a quantitative review. Hypertension 2006;48:219-224.
Elliot WJ, Meyer PM. Incident diabetes in clinical trials of antihypertensive drugs: a network meta-analysis. Lancet 2007;369:201-207 (Erratum, Lancet 2007;369:1518.)
Messerli FH, Grossman E, Goldbourt U. Are ²-blockers efficacious as first-line therapy for hypertension in the elderly? A systematic review. JAMA 1998;279:1903-1907.
Bangalore S, Messerli FH, Kostis JB, Pepine CJ. Cardiovascular protection using beta-blockers. A critical review of the evidence. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007;50:563-572.
Williams B, Lacy PS, Thom SM, et al. Differential impact of blood pressure-lowering drugs on central aortic pressure and clinical outcomes: principal results of the Conduit Artery Function Evaluation (CAFE) study. Circulation 2006;113:1213-1225.
Dart AM, Cameron JD, Gatzka CD, et al. Similar effects of treatment on central and brachial blood pressures in older hypertensive subjects in the Second Australian National Blood Pressure Trial. Hypertension 2007;49:1242-1247.
Bangalore S, Parkar S, Grossman E, Messerli FH. A metaanalysis of 94,492 patients with hypertension treated with ²-blockers to determine the risk of new onset diabetes mellitus. Am J Card (published online 10 August 2007).
Adherence to long-terms therapies–Evidence for action, World Health Organization 2003
Rosas, RENAHAS, Arch Cardio Mex 2005;75:96-111.
Apple LJ, Champagne CM, Hansha DW, Cooper LS, Obarzanek E, Elmer PJ, el al. Effects of comprehensive lifestyle modification on blood pressure control: main results of the PREMIER clinical trial. Writing Group of the PREMIER Collaborative Research Group. JAMA 2003;289:2083-2093.
Barrier PA, Li JT, Jensen NM. Two words to improve physician-patient communication: what else? Mayo Clin Proc 2003;78:211-214.
Betancourt JR, Carrillo JE, Green AR. Hypertension in multicultural and minority populations. Curr Hypertens Rep 1999;1:482-488.
Boulware LE, Daumit GL, Frick KD, et al. An evidencebased review of patient-centered behavioral interventions for hypertension. Am J Prev Med 2001;21:221-232.
Phillips LS, Branch WT, Cook CB, et al. Clinical inertia. Ann Intern Med 2001;135:825-834.
Laurence DR, Bennett PN. Clinical Pharmacology. Seventh edition, Churchill Livingstone 1992, pp. 24–26.
Psaty BM, Koepsell TD, Wagner ED, Logerefo JP. The relative risk of incident coronary heart disease associated with recently stopping the use of beta–blockers. JAMA 1990;263:1653–1657.
Rudd P. Partial compliance: implications for clinical practice. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1993 22(suppl A):S1–S5.
Alexander. Desirable therapeutic characteristics of an optimal antihypertensive agent. Drugs 2006;66:1239-1252.
Struijker-Boudier. The need for combination antihypertensive therapy to reach target blood pressures, Int J Clin Pract 2007;61:1592-1602.
Bangalore. Fixed dose combinations improve medication compliance meta analysis. Am J Med 2007;120;713-719.
Meredith PA, Perloff D, Mancia G, Pickering T. Blood pressure variability and its implications for antihypertensive therapy. Blood Pressure. 1995;4:5–11.
Muller JE, Stone PH, Turi AG. Circadian variation in the frequency of onset of acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1985;313:1315–1322.
Hill MN, Miller NH. Compliance enhancement: a call for multidisciplinary team approaches. Circulation 1996;93:4-6.