medigraphic.com

2007, Número S1

<< Anterior Siguiente >>

Arch Cardiol Mex 2007; 77 (S1)


7. Insuficiencia cardíaca derecha

Bautista BEG, Martínez GMLE, Pulido ZT, Sandoval ZJ, Santos MLE, García de LMS

Idioma: Español
Referencias bibliográficas: 127
Paginas: 61-72
Archivo PDF: 109.46 Kb.


FRAGMENTO

Definiciones

Cor pulmonale (CP). En 1963, la Organización Mundial de la Salud lo definió como: «La hipertrofia del ventrículo derecho (VD) que resulta de enfermedades que afectan la estructura y/o la función del pulmón; excepto cuando estas alteraciones sean el resultado de enfermedades que afecten primariamente el lado izquierdo del corazón (enfermedad cardíaca congénita, valvular, etc.)».1-9 Recientemente,10 se ha propuesto la siguiente: «La hipertrofia del VD, dilatación, o ambas, debido a hipertensión arterial pulmonar (HAP) como resultado de enfermedades que involucran al parénquima pulmonar, la circulación pulmonar o al control ventilatorio».


REFERENCIAS (EN ESTE ARTÍCULO)

  1. BARNARD D, ALPERT JS: Right ventricular function in health and disease. Curr Probl Cardiol 1987; 12: 417-449.

  2. BRISTOW M, ZIZMAN L, LANCES BD, ABRAHAM WT, BADESCH DB, GROVES B, ET AL: The pressure-overloaded right ventricle in pulmonary hypertension. Chest 1998; 114: 101S-106S.

  3. GRIGNOLA JC, GINÉS F: Mecánica del ventrículo derecho. Actas de Fisiología 2000; 6:131-163.

  4. LEE F: Hemodynamics of the right ventricle in normal and disease states. Clin Chest Med 1992; 10: 59-67.

  5. REDINGTON AN: Right ventricular function. Cardiol Clin 2002; 20: 23-30.

  6. MCNEIL K, DUNNING J, MORRELL NW: The pulmonary physician in critical care: The pulmonary circulation and right ventricular failure in the ITU. Thorax 2003; 58: 157-162.

  7. OLDERSHAW P, BISHOP A: The difficulties of assessing right ventricular function. Brit Heart J 1995; 74: 99-106.

  8. SANDOVAL J: Imagen del ventrículo derecho. Una pregunta por contestar. En: ROLDÁN FJ Y VALLEJO EP: (ed) Actualidades en imagen cardiovascular. PLAC Cardio-4. Intersistemas SA de CV, México, 2004: 144-149.

  9. MACNEE W: Pathophysiology of cor pulmonale in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 150: 833-852 (Part I); 1158-1168 (Part II).

  10. BUDEV MM, ARROLIGA AC, WIEDEMANN HP, MATTHAY RA: Cor pulmonale: An overview. Seminars in Resp and Crit Care Med 2003; 24: 233-243.

  11. WOOD KE: Major pulmonary embolism: Review of a pathophysiologic approach to the golden hour of hemodynamically significant pulmonary embolism. Chest 2002; 121: 877-905.

  12. VLAHAKES GJ, TURLEY K, HOFFMAN JIE: The pathophysiology of failure in acute right ventricular hypertension: Hemodynamic and biochemical correlations. Circulation 1981; 63: 87-95.

  13. DALEN JE: What have we learned since virchow? Natural history, pathophysiology and diagnosis. Chest 2002: 122(4).

  14. MCNEIL K, DUNNING J, MORRELL NW: The pulmonary physician in critical care: 13: The pulmonary circulation and right ventricular failure in the ITU. Thorax 2003; 58: 157-162.

  15. MILLER GA, SUTTON GC: Acute massive pulmonary embolism: Clinical and haemodynamic findings in 23 patients studied by cardiac catheterization and pulmonary angiography. Br Heart J 1970; 32: 518-523.

  16. KASPER W, KONSTANTINIDES S, GEIBEL A, OLSCHEWSKI M, HEINRICH F, GROSSER KD, ET AL: Management strategies and determinants of outcome in acute major pulmonary embolism: results of a multicenter registry. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997; 30: 1165-1171.

  17. STEIN PD, HENRY JW: Clinical characteristics of patients with acute pulmonary embolism stratified according to their presenting syndromes. Chest 1997; 112: 974-979.

  18. JERJES–SÁNCHEZ C, ELIZALDE GJ, SANDOVAL J, GUTIÉRREZ–FAJARDO P, SEOANE GLM, RAMÍREZ– RIVERA A, ET AL: Guías de la Sociedad Mexicana de Cardiología para la estratificación, diagnóstico y tratamiento de la tromboembolia pulmonar aguda. Arch Cardiol Mex 2004; Arch Cardiol Mex 2004; 74 (Supl): S548-S555.

  19. Task Force on Pulmonary Embolism, European Society Cardiology. Guidelines on diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism. Eur Heart J 2000; 1301: 1336.

  20. SANDOVAL J, PULIDO T, BAUTISTA E, ET AL: Cuidados intensivos en el paciente con tromboembolia pulmonar aguda. En: GONZÁLEZ A Y CONDE JM: (Ed) Tópicos selectos en medicina crítica 2006. Editorial Prado SA de CV, México DF. ISBN 9968-6899-89-8.

  21. ROCHA AT, TAPSON VF: Venous thromboembolism in intensive care patients. Clin Chest Med 2003; 24:102-122.

  22. GOLDHABER SZ: Pulmonary embolism. Lancet 2004; 363: 1295-305.

  23. PERRIER A, BOUNAMEAUX H: Acute pulmonary embolism; diagnosis. In: PEACOCK A, RUBIN LJ: (Eds) Pulmonary Circulation 2nd edition. Arnold. London 2004: 414-428.

  24. THAMES MD, ALPERT JS, DALEN JE: Syncope in patients with pulmonary embolism. JAMA 1977; 238: 2509-11.

  25. ELLIOTT CG, GOLDHABER SZ, VISANI L, ET AL: Chest radiographs in acute pulmonary embolism. Results from the International Cooperative Pulmonary Embolism Registry. Chest 2000; 118: 33-8.

  26. RATTES M, CALVIN JE: Acute Pulmonary Hypertension. In: PINSKY M, DHAINAUT JF: Pathophysiologic foundations of critical care. 1993: 312-336.

  27. ANDERSON JT, OWINGS JT, GOODNIGHT JE: Bedside non-invasive detection of acute pulmonary embolism in critically ill surgical patients. Arch Surg 1999; 134: 869-874.

  28. MCGINN S, WHITE PD: Acute cor pulmonale resulting from pulmonary embolism. JAMA 1935; 104: 1473-1480.

  29. STEIN PD, TERRIN ML, HALES CA: Clinical, laboratory, roentgenographic and electrocardiographic findings in patients with acute pulmonary embolism and no pre-existing cardiac or pulmonary disease. Chest 1991; 100: 598-603.

  30. KUCHER N, WALPOTH N, WUSTMANN K, NOVEANU M, GERTSCH M: QR in V1 – an ECC sign associated with right ventricular strain and adverse clinical outcome in pulmonary embolism. Eur Heart J 2003; 24: 113-119.

  31. SREERAM N, CHERIEX EC, SMEETS JLR, ET AL: Value of the 12-lead electrocardiogram at hospital admission in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism. Am J Cardiol 1994; 73: 298-303.

  32. A collaborative study by the PIOPED Investigators. Value of the ventilation-perfusion scan in acute pulmonary embolism: Results of the Prospective Investigation of Pulmonary Embolism Diagnosis (PIOPED). JAMA 1990; 263: 2753-2759.

  33. SCHOEPF UJ, GOLDHABER SZ, COSTELLO P: Spiral computed tomography for acute pulmonary embolism. Circulation 2004; 109: 2160-2167.

  34. GOLDHABER SZ: Echocardiography in the management of pulmonary embolism. Ann Intern Med 2002; 136: 691-700.

  35. GRIFONI S, OLIVITTO I, CECCHINI P, ET AL: Shortterm clinical outcome of patients with acute pulmonary embolism, normal pressure, and echocardiographic right ventricular dysfunction. Circulation 2000; 101: 2817-2822.

  36. GOLDHABER SZ, VISANI L, DE ROSA M: Acute pulmonary embolism: Clinical outcomes in the International Cooperative Pulmonary Embolism Registry (ICOPER). Lancet 1999; 353: 1386-1389.

  37. KUCHER N, PRINTZEN G, DOERNHOEFER T, WINDECKER S, MEIER B, HESS OM: Low pro-brain natriuretic peptide levels predict benign clinical outcome in acute pulmonary embolism. Circulation 2003; 107: 1576-1578.

  38. KUCHER N, PRINTZEN G, GOLDHABER SZ: Prognostic role of brain natriuretic peptide in acute pulmonary embolism. Circulation 2003; 107: 2545-2547.

  39. PRUSKY P, BOCHOWICZ A, TORBICKI A, SZULC M, KURZYNA M, FIJALKOWSKA A, ET AL: Cardiac troponin t monitoring identifies high-risk group of normotensive patients with acute pulmonary embolism. Chest 2003; 123: 1947-1957.

  40. GOLDHABER SZ: Acute pulmonary embolism; treatment. In: PEACOCK A, RUBIN LJ: (Eds) Pulmonary circulation. 2nd Edition. Arnold. London 2004: 429-437.

  41. CALDINI P: Pulmonary hemodynamics and arterial oxygen saturation in pulmonary embolism. J Appl Physiol 1965; 20: 184-190.

  42. MURRAY IV, MIKHAIL M, BANNER MJ, ET AL: Pulmonary embolism: high frequency jet ventilation offers advantages over conventional mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med 1987; 15: 114-117.

  43. BADR MS, GROSSMAN JE: Positional changes in gas exchange after unilateral pulmonary embolism. Chest 1990; 98: 1514-1516.

  44. SÁNCHEZ-DÍAZ CJ, RAMÍREZ-RIVERA A, DE LOURDES GM, ET AL: Streptokinase and heparin versus heparin alone in massive pulmonary embolism: A randomized controlled trial. J Thromb Thrombolysis 1995; 2: 227-229.

  45. WAN S, ET AL: Thrombolysis compared with heparin for the initial treatment of pulmonary embolism. A meta-analysis of the randomized controlled trials. Circulation 2004; 110: 744-750.

  46. KONSTANTINIDES S, ET AL: Heparin plus alteplase compared with heparin alone in patients with submassive pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 1143-1150.

  47. DE GREGORIO MA, GIMENO MJ, ALFONSO R: Fragmentación mecánica y fibrinólisis intrapulmonar en el tratamiento del tromboembolismo pulmonar masivo con repercusión hemodinámica. Arch Bronconeumol 2001; 37: 16-22.

  48. UFLACKER R: Treat the Clot! Endovascular Today, 2004; 23: 32-39.

  49. CAPELLIER G, JACQUES T, BALVAY P, ET AL: Inhaled nitric oxide in patients with pulmonary embolism. Intensive Care Med 1997; 23: 1089-1092.

  50. WEBB SA, STOTT S, VAN HEERDEN PV: The use of inhaled aerosolized prostacyclin (IAP) in the treatment of pulmonary hypertension secondary to pulmonary embolism. Intensive Care Med 1996; 22: 353-355.

  51. PREWITT RM: Hemodynamic management in pulmonary embolism and acute hypoxemic respiratory failure. Crit Care Med 1990; 18 (Suppl); S61-S69.

  52. STARLING E: Some points in the pathology of heart disease. Lancet 1897; 1: 652-655.

  53. STARR I: Role of the «static blood pressure» in abnormal increments of venous pressure, especially in heart failure. II Clinical and experimental studies. Am J Med Sci 1940; 199: 40-55.

  54. GUYTON AC: Determination of cardiac output by equating venous return curves with cardiac response curves. Physiol Rev 1955; 35: 123-129.

  55. GUYTON AC, LINDSEY AW, ABERNATHY B, ET AL: Venous return at various right atrial pressures and the normal venous return curve. Am J Physiol 1957; 189: 609-615.

  56. GUYTON AC, JONES C, COLEMAN T: Circulatory physiology. Cardiac output and its regulation. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Company, 1973.

  57. GOLDBERG HS, RABSON J: Control of cardiac output by systemic vessels: circulatory adjustments of acute and chronic respiratory failure and the effects of therapeutic interventions. Am J Cardiol 1981; 47: 696-702.

  58. SYLVESTER JT, GOLDBERG HS, PERMUTT S: The role of the vasculature in the regulation of cardiac output. Clin Chest Med 1983; 4: 111-125.

  59. PINSKY MR: Instantaneous venous return curves in an intact canine preparation. J Appl Physiol 1984; 56: 765-771.

  60. MATHRU M, VENUS B, SMITH RA, ET AL: Treatment of low cardiac output complicating acute pulmonary hypertension in normovolemic goats. Crit Care Med 1986; 14: 120-124.

  61. MOLLOY WD, LEE KY, GIRLING L, ET AL: Treatment of shock in a canine model of pulmonary embolism. Am Rev Respir Dis 1984; 130: 870-974.

  62. MAGDER SA, GEORGIADIS G, TUCK C: Respiratory variations in right atrial pressure predict response to fluid challenge. J Crit Care 1992; 7: 76-85.

  63. MERCAT A, DIEHL JL, MEYER G, ET AL: Hemodynamic effects of fluid loading in acute massive pulmonary embolism. Crit Care Med 1999; 27: 540-544.

  64. GUYTON AC, LINDSEY AW, GILLULY JJ: The limits of right ventricular compensation following acute increase in pulmonary circulatory resistance. Circ Res 1954; 2: 326-332.

  65. VLAHAKES GJ, TURLEY K, HOFFMAN JIE: The pathophysiology of failure in acute right ventricular hypertension: hemodynamic and biochemical correlations. Circulation 1981; 63: 87-95.

  66. CALVIN JE JR: Acute right heart failure: Pathophysiology, recognition, and pharmacological management. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 1991; 4: 251-265.

  67. LUALDI JC, GOLDHABER AZ: Right ventricular dysfunction after acute pulmonary embolism: Pathophysiologic factors, detection, and therapeutic implications. Am Heart J 1995; 130: 1-8.

  68. BRISTOW M, ZIZMAN L, LANCES BD, ABRAHAM WT, BADESCH DB, GROVES B, ET AL: The pressure- overloaded right ventricle in pulmonary hypertension. Chest 1998; 114: 101S-106S.

  69. BROOKS H, KIRK ES, VOKONAS PS, URSCHEL CW, SONNENBLICK EH: Performance of the right ventricle under stress: Relation to right coronary flow. J Clin Invest 1971; 50: 2176-2183.

  70. STATE D, SALISBURY PR: The experimental production of pulmonary embolism syndrome and the effects of variations of systemic arterial pressure on its course. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1956; 103: 202-208.

  71. HIRSCH LJ, ROONEY MW, WAT SS, KLEINMANN B, MATHRU M: Norepinefrine and phenylephrine effects on right ventricular function in experimental canine pulmonary embolism. Chest 1991; 100: 796-801.

  72. MATHRU M, DRIES DJ: Is levophed lethal? Chest 1989; 95: 1177-1178.

  73. ANGLE MR, MOLLOY DW, PENNER B, ET AL. The cardiopulmonary and renal hemodynamic effects of norepinephrine in canine pulmonary embolism. Chest 1989; 95: 1333-1337.

  74. JARDIN F, GENEVRAY B, BRUN-NEY D, ET AL: Dobutamine: a hemodynamic in PE Shock. Crit Care Med 1985; 13: 1009-1012.

  75. JEAN-LOUIS VINCENT: Pharmacological management of the pulmonary circulation in critically ill patients. In: PEACOCK A, RUBIN LJ: (Eds) Pulmonary circulation. 2nd Edition. Arnold. London 2004. Pág. 532-537.

  76. GRIFONI S, OLIVITTO I, CECCHINI P, ET AL: Shortterm clinical outcome of patients with acute pulmonary embolism, normal pressure, and echocardiographic right ventricular dysfunction. Circulation 2000; 101: 2817-2822.

  77. GUTIÉRREZ-FAJARDO P, JERJES-SÁNCHEZ DC: El papel del ecocardiograma en las urgencias cardiovasculares. En: SÁNCHEZ-DÍAZ CJ: Aspectos selectos en urgencias cardiovasculares 2001. 2ª Edición actualizada. México DF. Editorial Vesalio Difusión, 2001: 357-387.

  78. MCCONNEL MV, SOLOMON SD, RAYAN ME: Regional right ventricular dysfunction detected by echocardiography in acute pulmonary embolism. Am J Cardiol 1996; 78: 469-473.

  79. KONSTANTINIDES S, GEIBEL A, OLSCHEWSKI M, ET AL: Importance of cardiac troponins I and T in risk stratification of patients with acute pulmonary embolism. Circulation 2002; 106:1263-1268.

  80. PRUSKY P, BOCHOWICZ A, TORBICKI A, SZULC M, KURZYNA M, FIJALKOWSKA A, ET AL: Cardiac troponin t monitoring identifies high-risk group of normotensive patients with acute pulmonary embolism. Chest 2003; 123: 1947-1954.

  81. KUCHER N, PRINTZEN G, GOLDHABER SZ: Prognostic role of brain natriuretic peptide in acute pulmonary embolism. Circulation 2003; 107: 2545-2547.

  82. SANTOS LE: Fisiopatología de la falla ventricular derecha. Arch Cardiol Méx 2004; 74: S53- S357.

  83. WEITZENBLUM E: Chronic cor pulmonale. Heart 2003; 89: 225-230.

  84. CARGILL RI, KIELY DG, LIPWORTH BJ: Hypoxemia and the renin-angiotensin system: New answers for old questions. Pulm Pharmacol 1994; 7: 279-284.

  85. MORRELL NW, DANILOV SM, SARYYAN KB, ET AL: Right ventricular angiotensin converting enzyme activity and expression is increased during hypoxic pulmonary hypertension. Cardiovasc Res 1997; 34: 393-403.

  86. TUTAR E, KAYA A, GÜLEC S, ERTAS F, EROL C, ÖZDEMIR Ö ET AL: Echocardiographic evaluation of left ventricular diastolic function in chronic cor pulmonale. Am J Cardiol 1999; 83: 1414-1417.

  87. FARBER HW, LOSCALZO J: Pulmonary arterial hypertension. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1655-65.

  88. PIENE H: Pulmonary impedance and right ventricular function. Physiol Rev 1986; 66: 606-651.

  89. SANTOS E, ARANDA A, PULIDO T, ET AL: Right ventricular remodeling in chronic pressure overload depends on the type of pulmonary hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 167: A276.

  90. SANDOVAL J, BAUERLE O, PALOMAR A, ET AL: Survival in primary pulmonary hypertension: validation of a prognostic equation. Circulation 1994; 89: 1733-44.

  91. D’ALONZO GB, BARST RJ, AYRES SM, ET AL: Survival in patients with primary pulmonary hypertension. Ann Intern Med 1991; 115: 343-49.

  92. SANDOVAL J, GASPAR J: Atrial Septostomy. In: PEACOCK A, RUBIN LJ: (Eds) Pulmonary Circulation. 2nd Edition. Arnold. London 2004: 319-333.

  93. GÓMEZ A, BIALOSTOZKY D, ZAJARIAS A, SANTOS LE, PALOMAR A, SANDOVAL J: Right ventricular ischemia in patients with primary pulmonary hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001; 38: 1137-1142.

  94. ABRAHAM WT, RAYNOLDS MV, GOTTSCHALL B: Importance of angiotensin converting enzyme in pulmonary hypertension. Cardiology 1995; 86 (Suppl 1): 9-15.

  95. ROSAS M, KURI J, SANDOVAL J, ET AL: Circadian regulation of heart rate variability in primary pulmonary hypertension: An Unappreciated risk Marker? JACC 1999: 33 (Suppl 120 A).

  96. BELTRÁN ME, DÍAZ E, SANTOS E, ET AL: The role of tricuspid regurgitation in the pathophysiology of right ventricular failure from severe primary pulmonary hypertension. 3rd World Symposium on PAH, Venice, Italy, 2003 (abstract).

  97. HOPKINS WE: The remarkable right ventricle of patients with Eisenmenger syndrome. Coronary artery disease 2005; 16: 19-23.

  98. GALIE N, SEEGER W, NAEIJE R, ET AL: Comparative analysis of clinical trials and evidence-based treatment algorithm in pulmonary arterial hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 43: 81S-88S.

  99. CHRISTMAN BW, MCPHERSON CD, NEWMAN JH, ET AL: An imbalance between excretion of thromboxane and prostacyclin metabolites in pulmonary hypertension (see comments). N Eng J Med 1992; 327: 70-75.

  100. TUDER RM, COOL CD, GERACI MW, ET AL: Prostacyclin synthase expression is decreased in lungs from patients with severe pulmonary hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 159: 1925-1932.

  101. BARST RJ, RUBIN LJ, LONG W, ET AL: A comparison of continuous intravenous epoprostenol (prostacyclin) with conventional therapy for primary pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med 1996; 334: 296-301.

  102. MCLAUGHLIN VV, SHILLINGTON A, RICH S: Survival in primary pulmonary hypertension. The impact of epoprostenol therapy. Circulation 2002; 106: 1477-1482.

  103. SIMONNEAU G, BARST RJ, GALIÉ N, ET AL: Continuous subcutaneous infusion of Treprostinil, a prostacyclin analogue, in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 165: 800-804.

  104. OLSCHEWSKI H, SIMONNEAU G, GALIÉ N, ET AL: Inhaled iloprost for severe pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 322-329.

  105. GALIÉ N, HUMBERT M, VACHIERY JL, ET AL: Effects of beraprost sodium, an oral prostacyclin analogue, in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension: a randomized double-blind, placebo- controlled trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002; 39: 1496-1502.

  106. GIAID A, YANAGISAWA M, LANGLEBEN D, ET AL: Expression of endothelin-1 in the lungs of patients with pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 1732-9.

  107. RUBIN LJ, BADESCH DB, BARST RJ, ET AL: Bosentan therapy for pulmonary arterial hypertension. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 896-903.

  108. BARST RJ, LANGLEBEN D, FROST A, ET AL: Sitaxsentan therapy for pulmonary arterial hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004; 169: 441-447.

  109. GIAID A, SALEH D: Reduced expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in the lungs of patients with pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med 1995; 333: 214-221.

  110. GALIE N, GHOFRANI HA, TORBICKI A, ET AL: Sildenafil citrate therapy for pulmonary arterial hypertension. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 2148-57.

  111. TRULOCK EP: Lung transplantation for primary pulmonary hypertension. Clin Chest Med 2001; 22: 583-94.

  112. KLEPETKO W, MAYERS E, SANDOVAL J, ET AL: Interventional and surgical modalities of treatment for pulmonary arterial hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 43: 73S-80S.

  113. SANDOVAL J, GASPAR J, PULIDO T, ET AL: Graded balloon dilation atrial septostomy in severe primary pulmonary hypertension. A therapeutic alternative for patients non-responsive to vasodilator treatment. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998; 32: 297-304.

  114. SANDOVAL J, ROTHMAN A, PULIDO T: Atrial septostomy for pulmonary hypertension. Clin Chest Med 2001; 22: 547-60.

  115. ESPÍNOLA-ZAVALETA N, VARGAS J, TAZAR JI, ET AL: Echocardiographic evaluation of patients with primary pulmonary hypertension before and after atrial septostomy. Echocardiography 1999; 7: 625-634.

  116. MCGOON MD: The assessment of pulmonary hypertension. In: RICH S, MCLAUGLIN V: (Eds) Pulmonary hypertension. Clin Chest Med 2001; 22: 493-508.

  117. SITBON O, HUMBERT M, IOOS V, ET AL: Who benefits from long-term calcium-channel blocker therapy in primary pulmonary hypertension (Abstract). Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 167: A440.

  118. RUBIN LJ: Pulmonary arterial hypertension. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2006; 3: 111-5.

  119. GHOFRANI HA, ROSE F, SCHERMULY RT, ET AL: Oral sildenafil as long-term adjunct therapy to inhaled Iloprost in severe pulmonary arterial hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 42: 153-64.

  120. HUMBERT M, BARST RJ, ROBBINS IM, ET AL: Combination of bosentan with epoprostenol in pulmonary arterial hypertension: Breathe-2. Eur respir J 2004; 24: 353-359.

  121. PETKOV V, MOSGOELLER W, ZIESCHE R, ET AL: Vasoactive intestinal peptide as a new drug for treatment of primary pulmonary hypertension. J Clin Invest 2003; 111: 1339-1346.

  122. GHOFRANI HA, SEEGER W, GRIMMINGER F, ET AL: Imatinib for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 1412-3.

  123. SANDOVAL J, BAUTISTA BE, PULIDO Z, SANTOS M, MARTÍNEZ GUERRA, AGUIRRE SJ: Síndrome de Eisenmenger en Cardiopatías congénitas del adulto. Dr. Fause Attié. 2003. Elsevier Science, España.

  124. SANDOVAL J, AGUIRRE, ET AL: Nocturnal oxygen therapy in patients with the Eisenmenger´s syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164:1682-1687.

  125. BOWYER JJ, BUSST CM, DENISON DM, ET AL: Effect of long-term oxygen treatment at home in children with pulmonary vascular disease. Br Heart J 1986; 55: 385-390.

  126. AUGER WR, FEDULLO PF, JAMIESON SW: Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. In: PEACOCK A, RUBIN LJ: (eds) Pulmonary Circulation 2nd Edition. Arnold. London 2004: 440-457.

  127. FEDULLO PF, AUGER WR, KERR KM, ET AL: Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 1465-72.




2020     |     www.medigraphic.com